Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution

In modern history, the process of change has been from an agrarian and handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacturing. These technological changes introduced novel ways of working and living and fundamentally transformed society.

This process began in Britain in the 18th century and from there spread to other parts of the world.

Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution

The main features involved in the Industrial Revolution were technological, socioeconomic, and cultural. The technological changes included the following:

(1) The use of new basic materials, chiefly iron and steel,

(2) The use of new energy sources, including both fuels and motive power, such as coal, the steam engine, electricity, petroleum, and the internal-combustion engine,

(3) The invention of new machines, such as the spinning jenny and the power loom , that permitted increased production with a smaller expenditure of human energy

Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution factory

(4) A new organization of work known as the system, which entailed increased division of labor and specialization of function,

(5) Important developments in transportation and communication, including the steam locomotive, steamship, automobile, airplane, telegraph, and radio, and

6) The increasing application of science to industry. These technological changes made it possible for a tremendously increased use of natural resources and the mass production of manufactured goods

new developments in nonindustrial spheres

(1) agricultural improvement that made possible the provision of food for a larger nonagricultural population,

(2) economic changes that resulted in a wider distribution of wealth, the decline of land as a source of wealth in the face of rising industrial production, and increased international trade,

(3) political changes reflecting the shift in economic power, as well as new state policies corresponding to the needs of an industrialized society,

new developments in nonindustrial spheres

(4) sweeping social changes, including the growth of cities, the development of working-class movements, and the emergence of new patterns of authority, and

(5) cultural transformations of a broad order. Workers acquired new and distinctive skills, and their relation to their tasks shifted; instead of being craftsmen working with hand tools, they became machine operators, subject to factory discipline.

Finally, there was a psychological change: confidence in the ability to use resources and to master nature was heightened

Industrial Revolution History

• Revolutionary every aspect of life changes affecting

• Spread to continental Europe and North America

• Created a new type of worker – the wage laborer or proletarian

The Industrial Revolution started in Britain

- new machines and innovative processes helped change nations from industrial ones agricultural to

Industrial Revolution History

• Home-based cottage industries were rendered obsolete by the invention of the steam engine by Watt in 1785

• Goods could be made more cheaply

• Factories sprouted all over Britain where coal was available to fuel the engines, and other countries followed suit

Social and Political Changes

• Urbanization and a rise in population

• Growth of the bourgeoisie or middle class

• Professionals and businessmen

Technological Innovations

• Railways are used to easily transport people and goods

• Improved sanitation drainage and

• Coal-gas and gas lamps, later electricity

• Lift or elevator

• Growth of communications

• Ship-building and the Suez Canal

• International exhibitions of science and industry

Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architecture

• The biggest impact of the Industrial Revolution on 19th-century architecture was the mass production of iron and later steel in quantities where it became an economically plausible building material (as opposed to a limited material for weapons and tools).

• The introduction of steel was a game-changer in architecture. It’s hard to overstate its importance in modern life. Only plastics and silicon since the Industrial Revolution can be said to rival it in importance to contemporary civilization.

Impact of Industrial Revolution on Architecture

The application of iron, and particularly steel, to architecture greatly expanded the structural capabilities of existing materials and created new ones. Steel has a tremendous strength-to-weight ratio and allows engineers to design increasingly bigger, lighter, more open spaces, even while architecturally the traditional style was informed by the limitations of brick and masonry, as found in the curious case of the popular Gothic Revival, with its claustrophobic feel.

• The first major applications of steel occurred in public works, namely in railroads and bridges, which quickly made the best use of steel.

Architectural Character

Due to inventions in metallurgy and construction, new materials became available for building:

• structural iron and cast-iron

• iron and glass

• zinc

• Steel New building types:

• Industrial Buildings and Warehouses

• Railways and Transport Stations – spread all over

• Bridges

The Iron Bridge, Severn River, England

structure that is generally considered the first cast iron bridge, spanning the River Severn at Ironbridge, near Coalbrookdale in Shropshire,England.

It is now a British national monument, and the bridge, together with the town of Ironbridge and the Ironbridge Gorge, forms the UNESCO Ironbridge GorgeWorld Heritage site.

The Iron Bridge, Severn River, England

The bridge’s semicircular arch spans 30.6 meters (100.5 feet) and has five arch ribs, each cast in two halves. Designed by Abraham Darby or Thomas Pritchard, the bridge was erected by Darby in 1777–79.

(A similar bridge had been cast in France a few years earlier but not erected.) The bridge collected its first tolls in 1781 and is still used for pedestrian traffic, despite a slight humping of the arch

Britannia Bridge, Menai Straits, England

Welsh Pont Britannia, a railroad bridge in northern Wales spanning Menai Strait, between Bangor and the Isle of Anglesey. It was designed and built by Robert Stephenson, who, with his father, George Stephenson, built the first successful locomotive.

Unable to use an arch design because the Admiralty would not allow the strait to be closed to the passage of sailing ships, Stephenson conceived the idea of using a pair of completely enclosed iron tubes, rectangular in section, supported in the center by a pier built on Britannia Rock.

Britannia Bridge, Menai Straits, England

William Fairbairn carried out a series of metallurgical tests, and from 1846 to 1849 the work was executed, the iron tubes being floated into position and lifted by capstan and hydraulic power.

The bridge, which carried the London Holyhead railway across the strait, was severely damaged by fire in 1970. During the repairs, the tubes were replaced by concrete decks—one for the railway, a second for motor traffic— supported by steel arches.

Menai Bridge

also called Menai Suspension Bridge, Welsh Pont Grog y bridge Borth, spanning suspension the Menai Strait from Bangor, Wales, to the Isle of Anglesey, 176 meters (580 feet).

Designed and built (1819–26) by Thomas Telford, it was the first important modern suspension bridge. The deck, designed for two carriageways, was suspended by iron chains from masonry towers at either end.

Menai Bridge

Sixteen chain cables were each composed of 935 iron bars, a total of 2,000 tons of wrought iron. Though damaged by storms, the bridge survived because of the addition of transverse bracing and trussed railings.

In 1939, to accommodate increased automobile traffic, the chains were replaced by steel cables.

The Clifton Suspension Bridge

Designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, the Clifton Suspension Bridge was opened in 1864 and spans the Avon Gorge and the River Avon, linking the Clifton and Leigh Woods areas of Bristol, England.

The bridge is 412m (1,352 ft) long with a main span of 214m (702 ft) and a width of 9.4m (31ft). The stone towers rising 26m (86 ft) above deck level, although similar in size, are of different design, and Brunel’s plan to place sphinx statues on both was omitted.

The deck comprising asphalt-covered Baltic pine timber supported by steel girders lies 75m (245 ft) above the high-water mark.

Royal Albert Bridge, Saltash

Saltash is connected to Plymouth by the Royal Albert Bridge (completed 1859), which was the last railway bridge designed by engineer the Isambard Brunel before his death. British Kingdom The bridge spans the estuary in a series of 19 arches and is 2,240 feet (683 meters) long

Conwy Suspension Bridge

The deeply indented estuary of the River Conwy has long been an obstacle to travelers along the coast of northern Wales. The Scottish engineer Thomas Telford designed the first bridge across the estuary at Conwy; the innovative roadway Conwy of his Suspension Bridge (1822–26) is suspended from huge wrought-iron chains.

To carry a rail line across the estuary, the English engineer Robert Stephenson completed a tubular iron and-steel bridge at Conwy in 1848

Conwy Suspension Bridge

The bridge’s wrought iron suspension chains are supported on two pairs of towers 3.75m in diameter and 12.2m high, constructed in solid ashlar limestone. Each pair is linked by castellated walls incorporating 3m wide arches over the carriageway.

The main span is 99.7m between the tower chain supports. The two tiers of chains are each made up of four 2.75m long links joined by deeper plates with alternating joints. Vertical rods suspended at 1.5m intervals from the joining plates carry the deck.

Conwy Suspension Bridge

The balustrade is of diamond lattice ironwork. The original deck probably consisted of two layers of longitudinal timber planks carried on a light iron framework braced with bars on its underside

Conwy Railway Bridge (Pont Rheilffordd Conwy)

was designed by railway engineer Robert Stephenson in collaboration with William Fairbairn and Eaton Hodgkinson. The original plan had been for a suspension bridge complementing Thomas Telford's Conwy Suspension Bridge of 1826.

After Stephenson was appointed chief engineer, the design was changed because a suspension bridge was considered unsuitable for trains. Stephenson and his collaborators invented the wrought iron box-girder structure to bridge the River Conwy in a single span.

Conwy Railway Bridge (Pont Rheilffordd Conwy)

This wrought iron bridge was constructed at a time when wrought iron (also called malleable iron at the time) was a new material in terms of bridge construction.

It was so new that cast iron would continue to be used in the construction of metal bridges for decades after this bridge was built, before wrought iron (and its successor, steel) took its place as the dominant material in metal bridge construction.

• Total length: 463 ft (141.1 meters)

• Width: 42 ft (13 meters)

• Clearance below: 46 ft (14 meters, low tide)

Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, England

a giant glass-and-iron exhibition hall in Hyde Park, London, that housed the Great Exhibition of 1851. The structure was taken down and rebuilt (1852–54) at Sydenham Hill (now in the borough of Bromley), at which site it survived until 1936.

In 1849, Prince Albert, husband of Queen Victoria and president of the Royal Society of Arts, conceived the idea of inviting international exhibitors to participate in an exposition. Plans were developed and the necessary funds speedily raised, with Victoria herself heading the list of subscribers. The exhibition opened in the Crystal Palace on May 1, 1851

Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, England

designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, was a remarkable construction of prefabricated parts. It consisted of an intricate network of slender iron rods sustaining walls of clear glass. The main body of the building was 1,848 feet (563 meters) long and 408 feet (124 meters) wide; the height of the central transept was 108 feet (33 meters).

The construction occupied some 18 acres (7 hectares) on the ground, while its total floor area was about 990,000 square feet (92,000 square meters, or about 23 acres [9 hectares]). On the ground floor and galleries, there were more than 8 miles (13 km) of display tables

Palm House, Kew Gardens, London

Formally Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, botanical garden located at Kew, site of a former royal estate in the London borough of Richmond upon Thames. In 2003, Kew Gardens was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site.

• Function: Green House

• Material: Iron Structure Building

• Structure: Wrought Iron

• Architects: Dcimus Burton, Richard Turner

The Conservatory, Carlton House, London

was constructed in “the florid Gothic” style, made from cast iron.

“Its form resembles that of a cathedral, upon a small scale, having a nave and two aisles, which are formed by rows of clustered carved pillars, supporting arches, from which spring the fans and tracery that form the roofs. The interstices of the tracery of the ceilings are perforated and filled with glass, producing a novel, light, and appropriate effect.”

Designed by Thomas Hopper.

Menier Chocolate Factory, Noisel, France

one of France’s heritage most sites, remarkable featuring industrial on the country’s tentative list for world heritage inscription when Jean-Antoine Brutus Menier, a Paris.

Its origins go back to the 1820s manufacturer of pharmaceutical products acquired a mill on the river Marne, at Noisiel, using its waterpower to grind his various vegetal and mineral raw materials.

Under the direction of his son, Emile Justin, the firm concentrated on one of their most chocolate, now successful sold for products, everyday consumption by grocers as well as chemists.

Menier Chocolate Factory, Noisel, France

During the 1860s, the original site was considerably enlarged direction of the under architect the Jules Saulnier, who, in 1871, designed a remarkable new mill building for grinding the cacao seeds. This was one of the earliest metal-framed buildings in the world, its framework left visible with spectacularly colorful decorative brick infill.

Under the third generation of the Menier dynasty, the factory was further enlarged in 1906 with more remarkable buildings, designed this time by Stephen Sauvestre (architect of the Eiffel Tower) and making pioneering use of fretted concrete.

Bibliotheque Sainte Genevieve, Paris, France

Labrouste entered the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris in 1819, won the Prix de Rome for architecture in 1824, and spent the period from 1825 to 1830 in Italy, after which he opened a studio in Paris.

Labrouste is primarily remembered for the two Parisian libraries he designed. The Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, built between 1843 and 1850, is still admired for the attractiveness and restraint of its decoration and the sensitive use of exposed iron structural elements (columns and arches)

Henri Labrouste

(born May 11, 1801, Paris, France—died June 24, 1875, Fontainebleau) was, French architect important for his early use of iron frame construction.

Bibliothèque Nationale de France

the most important library in France and one of the oldest in the world, is located in Paris.

Labrouste is also remembered his second library project, the reading room (1860–67) for of the Bibliothèque Nationale. Its roof consists of nine decorated metal domes supported by slender cast-iron columns.

Eiffel Tower, Paris, France

French Tour d’Eiffel, Parisian landmark that is also a technological masterpiece in building construction history. When the French government was organizing the International Exposition of 1889 to celebrate the centenary of the French Revolution, a competition was held for designs for a suitable monument.

More than 100 plans were submitted, and the Centennial Committee accepted that of the noted bridge engineer Gustave Eiffel.

Eiffel’s concept of a 300-metre (984 foot) tower built almost entirely of open lattice wrought amazement, skepticism, iron and aroused no little opposition on aesthetic grounds. When completed, the tower served as the entrance gateway to the exposition

300-metre (984 foot)

Eiffel’s TOWER SIZE

Eiffel Tower, Paris, France

Nothing remotely like the BLANK had ever been built; it was twice as high as the dome of St. Peter’s in Rome or the Great Pyramid of Giza. In contrast to such older monuments, the tower was erected in only about two years (1887 89), with a small labor force, at slight cost.

Making use of his advanced knowledge of the behavior of metal arch and metal truss forms under loading, Eiffel designed a light, airy, but strong structure that presaged a revolution in civil engineering and architectural design. And, after it opened to the public on May 15, 1889, it ultimately vindicated itself aesthetically

Eiffel Tower, Paris, France

stands on four lattice girder piers that taper inward and join to form a single large vertical tower. As they curve inward, the piers are connected by networks of girders at two levels that afford viewing platforms for tourists. By contrast, the four semicircular arches at the tower’s base are purely aesthetic elements that serve no structural function.

Because of their unique shape, which was dictated partly by engineering considerations but also partly by Eiffel’s artistic sense, the piers required elevators to ascend on a curve; the glass-cage machines designed by the Otis Elevator Company of the United States became one of the principal features of the building, helping establish it as one of the world’s premier tourist attractions

Eiffel Tower, Paris, France

The tower itself is 300 meters (984 feet) high. It rests on a base that is 5 meters (17 feet) high, and a television antenna atop the tower gives it a total elevation of 324 meters (1,063 feet). The Eiffel Tower was the tallest structure in the world until the topping off of the Chrysler Building in New York City in 1929

The Galerie des Machines, Exposition Universelle

was built for the Universal Exposition of 1889 at the foot of the Champ de Mars in front of the École Militaire. Its architect was Ferdinand Dutert, assisted by the architects Blavette, Deglane, and Eugène Hénard.

The responsible engineer was Victor Contamin, assisted by the engineers Charton and Pierron. The structure was built by the Société des Forges de Fives-Lille and the Cail factory, and the masonry was erected by the M. Manoury company

The Galerie des Machines, Exposition Universelle

formed a huge glass and metal hall with an area of 115 by 420 meters (377 by 1,378 ft) and a height of 48.324 meters (158.54 ft), it was free of internal supports. The framework consisted of twenty trusses. The structure incorporated the three-pin hinged arch, developed for bridge building.