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John Locke
Definition: a philosopher and author of Two Treatises of Government
Significance: argued that the social contract implied the right and responsibility of the citizens to revolt against unjust government. He thought people had natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property. His emphasis on environment and education in shaping people was radical.
Social contract
Definition:An Enlightenment concept; an agreement between the people and their government signifying their consent to be governed.
Significance: popular in the 16th-18th centuries among theorists such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, as a means of explaining the origin of government and the obligations of subjects.
Baron de Montesquieu
Definition: wrote The Spirit of Laws, praised the British government's use of checks on power b/c it had a Parliament.
Significance: He influenced the American system, which adopted his idea by separating its executive branch (president) from the legislative branch (congress) and both from its third branch (federal judiciary).
Voltaire
Definition: also known as Francois-Marie Arouet, best known for his social satire Candide, famous for his wit and advocacy in civil liberties.
Significance: He was exiled for 3 years due to a conflict with a member of the French aristocracy, lived in England, developed an appreciation for its constitutional monarchy and regard for civil rights. He then campaigned to the French for religious and judicial reform leading to many of his works being quoted today and eventually led to the influence of the U.S. Constitution.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Definition: a writer who expanded on the idea of the social contract as it has passed down through the work of Hobbes and Locke.
Significance: One of his works was laid out on child-rearing and education. He inspired many revolutions in the late 18th century.
Enlightenment
Definition: A philosophical movement which started in Europe in the 1700's and spread to the colonies.
Significance: It emphasized reason and the scientific method. Writers of the Enlightenment tended to focus on government, ethics, and science, rather than on imagination, emotions, or religion. Many members of the Enlightenment rejected traditional religious beliefs in favor of Deism, which holds that the world is run by natural laws without the direct intervention of God.
Deism
Definition: A popular Enlightenment era belief that there is a God, but that God isn't involved in people's lives or in revealing truths to prophets.
Significance: emerged as a theological position that attempted to define the natural world and man's relationship to God through the application of Enlightenment ideals such as reason, rationality, and order.
Nationalism
Definition: sense of commonality based on language, religion, social customs, and territory; sometimes harnessed by governments to foster a sense of unity
Significance: is a concept marked by a strong sense of identity and loyalty to one's nation or ethnic group. During this period, it became a significant force in shaping political and social movements. It often arose from shared cultural or historical connections among a people.
Feminism
Definition: the belief that women should possess the same political and economic rights as men; became popular during the Enlightenment
Significance: First-wave feminism of the 19th and early 20th centuries focused on overturning legal inequalities, particularly addressing issues of women's suffrage.
Abolitionism
Definition: the movement to end the Atlantic slave trade and free all enslaved people, gained follwers in 18th centruy.
Significance: The slave trade stopped and the slavery began to decline. In most parts of America, slavery was abolished in 30 years. The first country to end slavery was Denmark in 1803 and the last country was Brazil in 1888.
Adam Smith
Definition: Scottish economist who wrote the the Wealth of Nations in 1776
Significance: Wealth of Nations was the first comprehensive system of political economy—which included Smith's description of a system of market-determined wages and free rather than government-constrained enterprise. approached the heart of the industrial revolution with his division of labour, specialization and exchange, and extent of the market, and planted the seed which has developed into the great social science of economics.
modern capitalism
Definition: laid the foundation for classical economics, emphasized the importance of free markets, individual self interest, and the invisible hand of competition in driving economic prosperity
Significance: adam smith's ideas influenced economic policies, contributing to the rise of capitlism
The Wealth of Nations
Definition: British philosopher and writer Adam Smith's 1776 book that described his theory on free trade, otherwise known as laissez-faire "leave alone" economics.
Significance: foundational work in classical economics, shaped economic thought and policies, book advocated for free markets, indiviual self intererst, and competition, influenced ideas on capitalism and economic liberalism
Laissez-faire
Definition: hands off approach to economic development; the government should limit its interference in the economy
Significance: shaped the industrial revolution, fostered free market capitalism, industrial growth, and innovation, led to social challenges like labor exploitation and economic inequality
Capitalism
Definition: an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.
Significance: industrial revolution saw the rise of capitalist economies, fueled industrialization, promoting technological advancements, increased production, and urbanization, led to the growth of trade, markets, and a shift from agrarian to industrial societies, brought challenges like labor exploitation, economic inequaluty, and social tensions, laid foundation for modern economic systems
Socialism
Definition: a political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.
Significance: marked by the rise of socialist ideologies in response to industrialization and social inequalites, influential figures like Karl Max promoted these ideas, advocating for workers rights, collective ownership, and more equitable distribution of wealth
Declaration of Independence
Definition: 1776 statement, issued by the Second Continental Congress, explaining why the colonies wanted independence from Britain.
Significance: inspired revolutionary movements, influenced the French Revolution, and promoted the idea of liberty, equality, and self determination, contributed to the emergence of democratic ideals
Declaration of Rights of Man
Definition: Adopted August 26, 1789, statement of fundamental political rights adopted by the French National Assembly at the beginning of the French Revolution.
Significance: asserted fundamental rights and principles, influencing subsequent movements for individual liberties and democratic ideals globally, documents emphasis on equality and human rights inspired other revolutinary movements, such as LA independe struggles
Reign of Terror
Definition: (1793-1794) during the French Revolution when thousands were executed for "disloyalty;" led by Robespierre who tried rebels and had them executed often by guillotine
Significance: symbolizes a radical phase of revolution marked by mass executions, political instablity, and social upheavel, events influenced political ideologies, heightened concerns about the excesses of revolutinary movements, and contributed to the rise of Napolean Bonaparte
Haitian Revolution
Definition: a successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial uprising in the late 18th century and early 19th centuries, led to the establishment of independent state of Haiti, marked by slave rebellions, political upheavel, and eventually, the abolition of slavery, first state run by former slaves
Significance: challenged slavery, inspiring other anti-colonial movements, marked the first successful slave revolt, influenced debates on abolition and contributed to the decline of the Atlantic Slave trade, prompted fear among slaveholding societies
Toussaint L'Ouverture
Definition: Was an important leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first leader of a free Haiti; in a long struggle again the institution of slavery, he led the blacks to victory over the whites and free coloreds and secured native control over the colony in 1797, calling himself a dictator.
Significance: leadership contributed to the abolition of slavery and the establishment of Haiti as the first independent Black republic in 1804, event had broader implications, inspiring anti-slavery movements and influencing discussions on freedom and equality
Simon Bolivar
Definition: Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan soldier and statesman who played a central role in the South American independence movement.
Significance: Bolívar served as president of Gran Colombia (1819-30) and as dictator of Peru (1823-26). The country of Bolivia is named for him.
factory system
Definition: The factory system is a method of manufacturing using machinery and division of labor.
Significance: It led to the mass production of goods and the development of new industries, but it also had significant social and environmental consequences, such as the exploitation of workers and the degradation of the natural environment.
agricultural revolution
Definition: outlines specific periods in human civilization when farming techniques drastically improved the mass cultivation of crops within a relatively short period of time.
Significance: This leads to greater production of food and the transformation of societies and economies
crop rotation
Definition: Crop rotation is the practice of planting different crops sequentially on the same plot of land to improve soil health, optimize nutrients in the soil, and combat pest and weed pressure.
Significance: Improves water use efficiency by increasing the amount of organic matter in the soil, which can improve soil structure and water-holding capacity.
cottage industry
Definition: A cottage industry is a small manufacturing operation and is often run out of a home by a single individual or family.
Significance: Cottage industries were the standard manufacturing base in many countries until the Industrial Revolution, which saw a rapid and disruptive conversion to large, centralized, mass-produced goods.
Eli Whitney
Definition: Eli Whitney is best remembered as the inventor of the cotton gin, he was also the father of the mass production method.
Significance: most famous invention was the cotton gin, which enabled the rapid separation of seeds from cotton fibres. Built in 1793, the machine helped make cotton a profitable export crop in the southern United States and further promoted the use of slavery for cotton cultivation
Transcontinental Railroad
Definition: The Transcontinental railroad was commissioned to be a railroad line that connected the United States from the east coast to the west coast.
Significance: The completion of the first transcontinental railroad revolutionized travel, connecting areas of the Western United States with the East. -- an instance of a technological advancment.
James Watt
Definition: James Watt is chiefly known for inventing different types of steam engine that helped start the Industrial Revolution. To describe the efficiency of his engines, he coined the term 'horsepower' and devised a rev counter.
Significance: influenced emergence of several technological advancments of this time.
second industrial revolution
Definition: The Second Industrial Revolution, also known as the Technological Revolution, was a phase of rapid scientific discovery, standardisation, mass production and industrialisation from the late 19th century into the early 20th century.
Significance: Rapid advances in the creation of steel, chemicals and electricity helped fuel production, including mass-produced consumer goods and weapons.
Mamluks
Definition: Mamluk, slave soldier, a member of one of the armies of slaves established during the Abbasid era that later won political control of several Muslim states.
Significance: Under the Ayyubid sultanate, Mamluk generals used their power to establish a dynasty that ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517.
Muhammad Ali
Definition: a general in the Ottoman army who eventually conquered modern-day
Significance: he is considered the founder of modern Egypt. His authority was temporarily approved by the Ottoman Empire and Ali set about establishing, reforming, and modernizing the Egyptian state.
Egypt
Definition: a country located on the northeastern coast of Africa, established by Muhammad Ali
Significance: became a major producer of cotton in the 19th cent, started to build an industralized economy, but ultimately failed
Commodore Matthew Perry
Definition a commodore in the US navy in the mid 1800s
Significance: opened previously isolated Japan up to trade w/ Western countries
zaibatsu
Definition: business conglomerates (multi-industry company) in Japan from the Meiji period to the end of WWII
Significance: Controlled significant parts of the Japanese economy and industrial activity and held great influence over Japanese national and foreign policies
Meiji Restoration
Definition: (1868) Japanese political revolution that ended the Tokugawa shogunate and therefore the Tokugawa period
Significance: it modernized Japan and paved the way for it to become a major international power
transnational
Definition: A commercial enterprise that operates substantial facilities, does business in more than one country and doesn't consider any country its national home
Significance: global nature of trade and production contributed to the growth of large scale transnational businesses
Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corp.
Definition: a company founded by Sir Thomas Sutherland in 1865 in British Hong Kong
Significance: transnational corporation, the largest bank in Hong Kong
Unilever Corporation
Definition: a company founded in 1929 in the UK and Netherlands by the merging of the Lever Brothers and Samuel van de Bergh's companies
Significance: Transnational company, Europe's 7th most valuable company (they sold soap)
urbanization
Definition: when people from areas with land to cities and more houses and refers to the population shift from rural areas to urban areas, the gradual increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas, and the ways in which each society adapts to this change
Significance: occurred primarily in the 1900s in Europe, the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas.
Bessemer process
Definition (1856) a process invented in England by Henry Bessemer
Significance: allowed for the mass production of steele
Karl Marx
Definition: 19th century German philosopher, studied political philosphy and supported communism. Father of Communisom. He wrote the Communist Manifesto and created Marxism.
Significance: Helped to change parts of the labor and socialist movements in western Europe. His ideas on class struggle and the flaws of capitalism left a mark on modern society. Believed in a classless society. He inspired social and political movements, like the Russian Revolution of 1917, which led to the Soviet Union.
Communist Manifesto
Definition: Written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848. Written documents encouraging an uprising by workers to take control of the factors of production from the upper classes. Authorized by the Communist League and published in London in 1848.
Significance: Emphasized the class struggle in society, and the dangerous instability of capitalism. Used to convince laborers to revolt for the overthrowing of the Bourgeoisie and the replacement of capitalism with communism.
Means of production
Definition: Land, labor, and capital that can be used to produce products, anything used to produce products
Significance: Part of Marxism, which led to the theory of a society without classes. Marxism examines the struggle between the capitalists and the worker class. Led to ideas of revolts.
Communism
Definition: Political and economic system, divides wealth. Places that produce products are owned by the public. Economic system that has a classless society where all the property and wealth are communally owned, not owned by individuals.
Significance: Led to ideas of revolts. Creating a classless society where everyone shares the benefits of labor and the state controls property and wealth. Communism could eliminate poverty and class distinctions, but also takes away from freedom and has the potential of a dictatorship to claim power.
Proletariat
Definition: Class of people who earn their living through labor. Must sell their own labor
Significance: Proletariat revolutions took place where the working class attempted to overthrow the Bourgeoisie. Proletariats were generally advocates of socialists, communists and anarchists.
Bourgeoisie
Definition: Middle class social order. The idea was partly a creation of Karl Marx.
Significance: The social class that owned much of production during modern industrialization. Pushed for political and economic reforms that would limit the power of the monarch and establish individual rights.
Bushido
Definition: Code of conduct for samurais during the European fudal period. First developed in the 12 century.
Significance: Guided samurai. Came from Zen-Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shintoism. Important as service to master and country. Important part of samurai which made up much of the military. Kept the samurai loyal to the country.
Tanzimat
Definition: Reforms spread in the Ottoman Empire from 1839-1876. Goal was to reform the military by making it more modern and taking inspiration from European armies.
Significance: Janisarries were not as advanced or loyal and the need for European reforms were necessary. Drew ideas from the Enlightenment. They also established a Western style university, state postal system, railways, and legal reforms.
Self-Strengthening Movement
Definition: Qing dynasty introduced Western tech and ideas to renovate China.
Significance: Development of military industries and advancements in shipbuilding to strengthen the Chinese navy. Did not achieve much success in modernizing China, as some resisted and not all followed reforms.
Hundred Days of Reform
Definition: Attempt at renovating the Chinese state and social system. Happened after the Chinese defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). Wanted to become more like the Western model.
Significance: Intended to remake China into a powerful modern industrial society. Goals of the reforms were to get rid of the examination system, create universities, and generally westernize.
Empress Cixi
Definition: Mother of Tongzhi, the son of the emperor. Qing Dynasty. Very powerful woman in Chinese history. When Tongzhi became king she became empress dowager
Signifance: Wanted to modernize China. Ended examination system. Did not wanted to use Western models of government, but instead supported tech advancements and the Self-Strengthening Movement. Supported Boxer Rebellion. Wanted China to be a monarchy.
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