A suite of federal programs introduced by FDR to provide relief, recovery, and reform during the Great Depression.
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Alfred Thayer Mahan
A U.S. naval officer and historian whose writings on sea power greatly influenced naval strategy and American expansion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
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Queen Liliuokalani
The last sovereign monarch of Hawaii who resisted American annexation following the overthrow of her kingdom.
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Pan-American Conference
A series of meetings starting in 1889 among Western Hemisphere nations to promote economic cooperation, trade, and diplomatic relations.
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jingoism
An aggressive form of patriotism that advocates a warlike foreign policy.
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Cuban Revolt
The Cuban War of Independence (1895–1898) against Spanish colonial rule that set the stage for U.S. involvement in the Spanish–American War.
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Yellow Journalism
A style of sensationalized news reporting that used exaggerated headlines and stories to sway public opinion, especially before the Spanish–American War.
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De Lome letter
A private letter by the Spanish ambassador criticizing President McKinley that fueled U.S. public outrage and helped trigger the Spanish–American War.
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Teller Amendment
A 1898 Congressional resolution promising Cuban independence and stating the U.S. would not annex Cuba after the Spanish–American War.
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Platt Amendment
An amendment that imposed conditions on Cuba’s independence, allowing U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs after the Spanish–American War.
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sphere of influence
A region where a foreign power exerts predominant cultural, economic, or political control without direct political rule.
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George Dewey
A U.S. naval officer celebrated for his decisive victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War.
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Emilio Aguinaldo
A Filipino revolutionary leader who fought against Spanish and later American colonization, eventually becoming the first President of the Philippines.
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Rough Riders
A volunteer cavalry regiment led by Theodore Roosevelt during the Spanish–American War, famous for its charge up San Juan Hill.
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Hawaii
A strategically important group of Pacific islands annexed by the U.S. in 1898 following the overthrow of its native monarchy.
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Theodore Roosevelt
The 26th U.S. President known for his progressive “Square Deal” reforms and assertive foreign policy that expanded American influence.
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Open Door Policy
A U.S. diplomatic proposal (1899) to ensure equal trading rights in China while preserving Chinese territorial integrity.
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Boxer Rebellion
An anti-foreign, anti-colonial uprising in China (1899–1901) by the “Boxers” that led to an international military intervention including the U.S.
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Panama Canal
A man-made waterway constructed by the U.S. between 1904 and 1914 in Panama that drastically shortened shipping routes between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
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William Howard Taft
The 27th U.S. President noted for his policy of “Dollar Diplomacy,” promoting U.S. economic interests abroad.
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Dollar Diplomacy
A U.S. foreign policy strategy that advanced national interests by encouraging American investments in foreign markets.
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Roosevelt Corollary
An extension of the Monroe Doctrine articulated by Theodore Roosevelt that asserted the U.S. right to intervene in Latin America to maintain regional stability.
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Russo-Japanese War
A 1904–1905 conflict between Russia and Japan over imperial ambitions in East Asia, marking Japan’s emergence as a modern power.
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Puerto Rico
A Caribbean island acquired by the U.S. as a result of the Spanish–American War, now an unincorporated U.S. territory.
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Woodrow Wilson
The 28th U.S. President known for his progressive reforms, leadership during World War I, and efforts to establish the League of Nations.
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Moral Diplomacy
Woodrow Wilson’s foreign policy approach that promoted democratic ideals and moral principles over coercion.
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Pragmatism
An approach to problem-solving that emphasizes practical results over rigid ideology.
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Ida Tarbell
An investigative journalist and muckraker whose exposé of Standard Oil’s monopolistic practices led to major reforms.
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Jacob Riis
A photojournalist and reformer known for documenting the harsh living conditions of New York City’s poor in “How the Other Half Lives.”
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Muckrakers
Investigative journalists during the Progressive Era who exposed corruption and corporate abuses to spur reform.
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Florence Kelley
A social reformer who fought for workers’ rights—especially for women and children—leading to important labor reforms.
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Triangle Shirtwaist fire
A 1911 industrial disaster in New York City that killed over 140 workers and spurred significant improvements in workplace safety.
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16th Amendment
An amendment ratified in 1913 granting Congress the power to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states.
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17th Amendment
An amendment ratified in 1913 that established the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people.
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18th Amendment
An amendment ratified in 1919 that instituted Prohibition by banning the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol.
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Square Deal
The domestic program of Theodore Roosevelt focused on fairness for workers, consumers, and businesses through progressive reforms.
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Mann-Elkins Act
A 1910 law that expanded the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate communications and utilities.
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The Jungle
A 1906 novel by Upton Sinclair exposing unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry, leading to food safety reforms.
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Upton Sinclair
An author and muckraker best known for “The Jungle,” which highlighted industrial abuses in America.
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“Bull Moose” Party
The Progressive Party formed by Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 after splitting from the Republicans to champion reform.
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Booker T Washington
An influential African American educator who promoted vocational training and economic self-reliance as a path to racial uplift.
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W.E.B Du Bois
A prominent African American intellectual and civil rights activist who co-founded the NAACP and advocated for full political rights.
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NAACP
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, established in 1909 to fight racial discrimination.
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Alice Paul
A suffragist and feminist who played a key role in securing the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote.
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19th Amendment
An amendment ratified in 1920 that granted women the right to vote in the United States.
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Lusitania
A British passenger ship sunk by a German U-boat in 1915, an event that helped shift U.S. public opinion toward entering WWI.
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Preparedness
A movement advocating for a military buildup in the U.S. in anticipation of involvement in global conflicts, especially during WWI.
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Zimmerman Telegram
A secret 1917 German diplomatic message proposing a military alliance with Mexico against the U.S., influencing American entry into WWI.
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John J. Pershing
A U.S. Army General who led the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe during World War I.
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George Creel
The head of the Committee on Public Information during WWI, responsible for organizing propaganda to build war support.
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Bolsheviks
The radical faction of the Russian socialist movement, led by Lenin, which seized power during the 1917 Russian Revolution.
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Fourteen Points
A set of principles proposed by President Wilson in 1918 outlining a vision for a just post-WWI peace.
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League of Nations
An international organization established after WWI to promote global peace and cooperation, though the U.S. never joined.
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Henry Cabot Lodge
A U.S. Senator and critic of the League of Nations who argued for a more isolationist foreign policy post-WWI.
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self-determination
The principle that nations have the right to choose their own government and political status without external interference.
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Reparations
Payments imposed on a defeated nation after a conflict to compensate victors for damages.
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mobilization
The process of assembling and preparing military forces for active service in anticipation of or during conflict.
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Liberty Bonds
War bonds sold by the U.S. during WWI to finance military operations and rally public support.
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Spanish Flu
The 1918–1919 influenza pandemic that infected millions worldwide and had a profound impact on public health.
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Schenck v United States
A 1919 Supreme Court case upholding restrictions on free speech during wartime by establishing the “clear and present danger” standard.
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Selective Service Act
A 1917 law authorizing the U.S. government to draft soldiers for service during World War I.
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The Red Scare (1st)
A period of intense fear of communism in the U.S. following WWI, leading to crackdowns on suspected radicals.
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Palmer Raids
A series of law enforcement actions in 1919–1920 targeting suspected radicals during the first Red Scare.
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Nativism
A sentiment favoring the interests of native-born citizens over immigrants, often resulting in restrictive policies.
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Sacco & Vanzetti
Two Italian immigrant anarchists controversially convicted of murder in 1920, symbolizing ethnic prejudice and judicial injustice.
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The Great Migration
The mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North from the 1910s to 1970.
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Fundamentalism
A religious movement emphasizing strict adherence to traditional beliefs and practices, often opposing modernist ideas.
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Traditionalism
The adherence to long-established cultural, social, or religious norms, typically resisting rapid change.
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Henry Ford
An industrialist who revolutionized manufacturing with the assembly line, making automobiles affordable and production efficient.
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Assembly Line Process
A manufacturing method where a product is built in sequential steps along a production line, greatly increasing efficiency.
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Art Deco
A design style from the 1920s and 1930s characterized by geometric shapes, bold colors, and lavish ornamentation.
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Charles Lindbergh
An aviator famed for making the first solo nonstop transatlantic flight in 1927, symbolizing American innovation.
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Modernism
A cultural movement in art, literature, and architecture that embraced experimental forms and broke with traditional conventions.
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Scopes Trial
The 1925 “Monkey Trial” in Tennessee that debated the legality of teaching evolution in public schools.
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“Scarface” Al Capone
A notorious Prohibition-era gangster known for his organized crime and bootlegging in 1920s America.
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Margaret Sanger
A birth control activist who championed women’s reproductive rights and laid the groundwork for modern family planning.
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Harlem Renaissance
A cultural and artistic explosion among African Americans in the 1920s centered in Harlem, New York.
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“Jazz Age”
A term describing the 1920s in America, marked by the popularity of jazz music and significant cultural change.
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Marcus Garvey
A Jamaican political leader who promoted Black nationalism and founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association.
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Warren G. Harding
The 29th U.S. President (1921–1923) known for his call for a “return to normalcy” after WWI, though his term was marred by scandals.
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“Return to Normalcy”
A slogan used by Harding promising a restoration of pre-WWI conditions and stability in American life.
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Teapot Dome
A major political scandal in the early 1920s involving secret leasing of federal oil reserves in exchange for bribes.
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Calvin Coolidge
The 30th U.S. President known for his conservative economic policies and presiding over a prosperous era in the 1920s.
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Herbert Hoover
The 31st U.S. President whose term is chiefly remembered for the onset of the Great Depression following the 1929 stock market crash.
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Alfred E. Smith
A prominent New York politician and the first Catholic to run for president on a major party ticket (1928).
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Great Depression
A severe global economic downturn beginning with the 1929 stock market crash and lasting throughout the 1930s.
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Black Tuesday
The day (October 29, 1929) when the U.S. stock market crashed, marking the start of the Great Depression.
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Federal Reserve
The central banking system of the U.S., established in 1913 to regulate banks, manage the money supply, and ensure economic stability.
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Hawley-Smoot Tariff
A 1930 protectionist tariff that raised U.S. import duties, widely believed to have worsened the Great Depression.
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Bonus Army/Bonus March
A 1932 protest by WWI veterans who marched on Washington, D.C. demanding early bonus payments for their service.
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RFC (Reconstruction Finance Corporation)
A government agency created in 1932 to provide financial support to banks, industries, and institutions during the Great Depression.
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19th Amendment
(Second entry) An amendment granting women the right to vote; its repetition underscores its significance in U.S. history.
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Franklin D. Roosevelt
The 32nd U.S. President (1933–1945) who implemented the New Deal to combat the Great Depression and led the nation during most of WWII.
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21st Amendment
An amendment ratified in 1933 that repealed Prohibition by nullifying the 18th Amendment.
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Three Rs
A shorthand for the New Deal’s goals—Relief, Recovery, and Reform—designed to address the economic crisis of the Great Depression.
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First New Deal
The initial phase of FDR’s New Deal (1933–1934) focused on immediate relief and economic recovery.
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Fireside Chats
Informal radio addresses by FDR that explained New Deal policies and reassured the American public during crises.
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Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)
A program designed to boost agricultural prices by reducing surpluses; farmers received subsidies to limit production.
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Public Works Administration (PWA)
An agency established in 1933 to fund large-scale public infrastructure projects—such as dams, bridges, and schools—to stimulate economic recovery.
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Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)
A work-relief program that provided jobs for young men during the Great Depression while focusing on environmental conservation projects.
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