English empiricist philosopher who believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience (1632-1704)
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Wundt
father of psychology
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Freud
psychoanalysis founder
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Watson
Behaviorism; "Little Albert Study"; aversion therapy
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Skinner
operant conditioning man
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Rogers
Humanistic founder
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Empiricism
what we know comes from experience
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Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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Nature vs. Nurture
Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute more to a person's being?
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biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
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Biological Approach
an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system
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Evolutionary Approach
traits that have been passed down from previous generations
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Pyschodynamic Approach
how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts
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behavioral approach
how environment shapes behavior
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Cognitive Approach
how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information
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humanistic approach
focused on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment
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social-cultural approach
how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
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pyschometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
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biological psychologists
explore the links between brain and mind
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developmental psychologist
studies psychological development across the lifespan
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cognitive pyschologists
psychologists who study the way people think, remember, and mentally organize information
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educational psychologist
focuses on how effective teaching and learning take place
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personality psychologists
Psychologists who study the characteristics that make individuals similar to, or different from, one another
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social pyschologists
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
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Industrial/Organizational Psychologists
Psychologists who study ways to improve efficiency, productivity, and satisfaction among workers and the organizations that employ them
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human factors psychologists
focus on the interaction of people, machines, and physical environments
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Counseling Psychologists
Psychologists who specialize in the treatment of everyday adjustment problems.
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Clinical Psychologists
Psychologists who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and everyday behavioral problems.
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Psychiatrists
medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders
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Forensic Psychologists
apply psychological principles to legal issues
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Sports Psychologists
apply psychological principles to help athletes set goals, train, and concentrate their efforts
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hindsight bias
I knew it all along phenomenon
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Overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
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critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
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Theory
A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data
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Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
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operational definition
a statement of the procedures used to define research variables (measurable)
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Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
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Population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
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random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
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case study
study of one individual in great detail
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survey
the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions
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naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
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Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables
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correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
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Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
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positive correlation
A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.
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negative correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases
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illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
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random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
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double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo.
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placebo effect
improvement resulting from the mere expectation of improvement
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experimental group
the group that is exposed to the treatment
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control group
the group that is not exposed to the treatment
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independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated
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dependent variable
The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
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confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
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measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
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mean, median, mode
Average, middle, most common
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Measures of Variance
range and standard deviation
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standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score (68,95,99)
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statistical significance
how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance or if it was caused by the experiment
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sample size
the number of individuals in a sample
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normal curve
A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
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percentile rank
indicates how well a student performed in comparison to the students in the specific norm group
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skewed right distribution
The peak of the data is to the left side of the graph. There are only a few data points to the right side of the graph.
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Skewed Left Distribution
The peak of the data is to the right side of the graph. There are only a few data points to the left side of the graph.
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Confidentiality
Respecting the privacy of both parties and keeping details secret
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No harm
mental and physical damage can not occur
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informed consent
principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
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Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
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social psychologists
explore how we view and affect one another
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attribution theory
the theory that we explain someone's behavior due to the situation
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fundamental attribution theory
we explain behavior by overanalyzing the person and forget the impact of the situation
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actor-observer effect
assuming that someone did something because thats who they are, but when you do it, there are external factors
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self-serving bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
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Attitudes
evaluations of people, objects, and ideas
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central route persuasion
logic based
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peripheral route persuasion
emotion based
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foot-in-the-door phenomenon
the tendency to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one
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cognitive dissonance
actions don't match beliefs of attitudes
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Conformity
changing one's own behavior to match that of other people
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normative social influence
picking up on cues to fit into a group
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informational Social Influence
groups tells you what to do when you want to fit in
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Compliance
changing one's behavior as a result of other people directing or asking for the change
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Obedience
A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
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social facilitation
improved performance in the presence of others
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social inhibition
a decrease in performance in front of a crowd
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social loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort
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Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations
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bystander effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
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group polarization
beliefs get stronger when talked to with people that think the same
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Groupthink
you don't think in a group, wanting harmony overrides personal belief
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Culture
Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.
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Cultural Norms
prescriptions for how people should interact and what messages should mean in a particular setting
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prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
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sterotype
A generalized belief about a group of people
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Discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members