EPSY 2040 study guide

Theory

organized group of concepts or principles that explain some aspects of children’s development

Bioecological Model (Bronfenbrenner)

Basic aim

to highlight the multiple layers of influence on the child

Bioecological Model (Bronfenbrenner)

Emphasis

Focuses on general age trends for all children and how individuals are different

Bioecological Model (Bronfenbrenner)

Forces that drive development

Heredity and environment act together to influence development. Does not specify particular processes

Bioecological Model (Bronfenbrenner)

Emphasis: nature or nurture

emphasizes both nature and nurture

Experimental design

Used when you can change something in the learner’s environment and measure the results

Nonexperimental design

used when you cannot run an experiment and must correlate or measure the relationship between two variables

Qualitative design

Involves interviews, observations of natural behavior, and other forms of data, usually reported in words rather than numbers

Longitudinal Research design

data collected from the same individuals two or more times, separated by a period

Cross-sectional research design

Data collected at one point in time: collecting data from different age groups simultaneously, and trying to understand how a variable changes over time

Causality

relationship between cause and effect

Bidirectional

Variable A influences variable B, while B also influences A

Measurement

Includes observation of behavior, ratings, self-reporting, and physiological markers

Reliability

Is the measurement consistent

-A measure can be reliable but not invalid

-An unreliable test cannot be valid

Nature

The role of genes in individual diversity

Behavioral Genetics

The study of how genes and the environment contribute to individual differences in behavior

Heritability

a statistical estimate of the amount of genetic variation of a trait in a population

Shared environment

factors that make individuals residing in the same family as each other

Nonshared environment

factors that make individuals in the same family different from each other

Problem 1 in Estimating Heritability

It depends on population variation. Heritability examines why a trait varies within a population

Ex) If everyone is well-nourished, height differences seem genetic. If nutrition varies greatly, height differences are more likely to be environmental

Problem 2 in Estimating Heritability

Assumes genes and environment act independently: in reality, genes and environment are not independent. There is a gene-environment correlation.

Ex) A child with musical talent gravitates toward music, practices more, and further develops their ability

How can genes influence behavior?

Genotype: the set of genes directly inherited and transmitted to descendants

Phenotype: observable characteristics of a person

Genes do not determine or cause behavior but do influence probability

Nurture

The role of culture in group diversity

Culture

The pattern of values, beliefs, institutions, and behaviors a group of people shares can be large groups (e.g., whole countries) or smaller subgroups within a country

Ethnicity

Refers to a group that shares a cultural heritage and/or a common ancestry

What is cultural capital?

knowledge and social relationships that allow people to reap benefits within their culture

What is cultural mismatch?

A pattern of incompatibilities between home and school

Risk Factor

An aspect of the child or environment that increases the probability of poor outcomes

Forms of risk factors: biological, cognitive, social, or economic; part of family, part of community

Adverse childhood experience (ACE)

When a child experiences trauma before the age of 18

Resilience

The ability to adapt and flourish in the face of adversity and includes the ability to recover from trauma

Risk factors (examples)

Low maternal affection, Abuse, low parental education, low family income

Protective Factors

factors that decrease the likelihood of poor outcomes in children at risk

Protective Factors (examples)

High-quality parenting, strong relationships with a father figure or surrogate parent, school, family, and/or peer support

What does the concept of accumulating risk factors suggest development?

The likelihood of negative outcomes increases as the number of risk factors increases

Socioeconomic status (SES)

Refers to a combination of parental education, occupation, and income

Low SES is a risk factor for

health problems such as drug exposure, socioemotional problems such as depression, cognitive problems such as low verbal ability

High SES is a risk factor for

higher levels of stress, pressure to achieve, anxiety and depression, and drug use

Neuron

The basic unit of the brain. 3 parts: Cell body, Dendrites, Axons

Cell body

contains the nucleus, similar to other body cells

Dendrites

The receiving units that bring information from other cells

Axons

the sending units that carry information away to other neurons or to muscle cells

How do Neurons communicate with each other?

through electrical signals, which are affected by myelin

Myelin

a fatty substance that forms an insulating sheath around axons

A synapse

a junction where neurons communicate with each other, or with other kinds of cells

What are the three parts of a synapse?

-Sending end of one neuron

-Receiving end of another neuron

-space between them

What chemical is released when neurons communicate chemically across synapses?

neurotransmitter

What functions does the left hemisphere of the brain perform?

Analytical, language processing, and sequential processing

What functions does the right hemisphere of the brain perform?

spatial awareness, holistic, and integrative thinking

Brainstem (midbrain and hindbrain)

Part of the lower brain, which is believed to be an evolutionarily old region that regulates body functions like the sleep-wake cycle. Develops 6 weeks after conception. The hypothalamus (midbrain): regulates internal organs, hormones, emotions, hunger, and other activities

Limbic system

Is a collection of structures that sit like a donut on the brainstem; it is considered the reward center. Important structures are the hippocampus (memory), amygdala (involved in emotions), and cingulate gyrus (problem solving)

The Cerebellum

Is a latticework of neurons at the back of the brain. It is involved in movement, muscle tone, concentration, and learning from errors

Cerebral cortex

A cap covering the other regions of the brain. It takes many years to develop fully. Complex functions like language and abstract thinking are coordinated in the cortex. Four Lobes: 1. frontal 2. parietal 3. temporal 4. occipital

Frontal lobe

The largest part of the cortex. It organizes information in your mind as you read, resists distraction, and inhibits impulses.

Age trends in Brain development

-Brian develops in an orderly way

-The first areas to mature are involved in motor skills and basic senses

-Next come language areas

-Last to mature is the prefrontal cortex

How do areas of the brain mature?

by increasing myelination, specializing, building connections, and prunin synapses

Brain development for Infancy and Toddlerhood (prenatal to 2 years)

This stage is critical for brain development. From three months before birth until around age 2, there is explosive growth in synapses, a process known as synaptogenesis.

Brain development for Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)

During this period, glucose levels in the brain continue to rise, with the glucose utilization rate being twice that of an adult

Brain development Middle Childhood (6 to 12 years)

Sensitive period in which children readily develop specific abilities. Changes in skills and development are less likely to occur before or after this stage.

Brain development Adolescence (13 to 19 years)

-Different areas of the brain become more interconnected

-pruning conditions: synapses in the frontal cortex diminish to adult levels

-myelination of the prefrontal cortex increases

What happens when a child feels stress?

The hypothalamus secretes a hormone that causes the body to produce cortisol, which alters energy levels, emotions, learning, and immune function

underactive stress response

tend to be aggressive, impulsive, delinquent, and have ADHD

Overactive stress response

tend to have depression, anxiety, or anorexia

What predicts individual differences in brain development?

Genetics: heritability works through genetically caused brain differences

Experiences: Brain plasticity - the brain’s ability to change structure and function because of experience

Experiences that shape the brain

Biological factors: exercise, nutrition, sleep, drugs

Social Factors: Attachment, stress, stimulating environments

Stimulating environments promote brain development

Growth and motor development Infancy and Toddlerhood

-Normal birth size can range from 5.5 to 10 pounds, but birth size does not predict adult size

-Average newborn length: 19-21in

Growth and motor development Early Childhood

Growth rate slows to 2-3in in height and 5 pounds per year

Growth and motor development Middle Childhood (6-12)

Average 2-3in and 5-6 pounds per year

Growth and motor development Adolescent (13 to 19)

-Growth spurt earlier for girls than boys; growth rate part of puberty

Puberty

growth spurt, changes in the proportion of muscle and fat, development of primary sex characteristics, sexual maturation, first menstruation for girls, or first ejaculation for boys, development of secondary sex characteristics

What predicts individual differences in growth and motor skills?

-Genes

-Exercise

-Nutrition

-Parent-child relationship

Group Diversity in growth and motor development

-Gender: girls mature earlier in infancy and puberty

-Socioeconomic status: different types of nutrition levels

Contemporary Health challenges

-Sleep deprivation

-obesity and other eating disorders

-Drug use

Drug use risk factors

-parents and friends use

-mental health problems

Drug protective factors

-parenting (monitoring)

-personal (having valued skills, self-control)

-Teachers (promoting school bonding)

Prenatal Drug Exposure

Teratogens (agents that harm a developing fetus)

-Alcohol is the most powerful and common behavioral teratogen

Fetal Alcohol syndrome

-small head size

-facial abnormalities such as a thin upper lip and wide eyes

-attention and behavioral problems

-low intelligence

Fetal Alcohol spectrum disorders

-low birth weight

-slow thinking

-poor memory

-difficulty focusing one’s attention

Behaviorism

The scientific study of visible, observable behavior

Learning

a relatively permanent change in observable behavior that is the result of experience, not maturation or some other cause

Conditioning

Creating situations that result in learning

2 types:

-Classical

-operant

Classical Conditioning

-Focuses on involuntary responses

-An unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response

-After repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and causes conditioned response

operant conditioning

a learning process in which behaviors are increased or decreased based on the consequences they produce (reinforcement or punishment)

Reinforcer

A consequence that increases the probability of a response

shaping

reinforcement of successive approximations to a target behavior

Extinction

stopping reinforcement results in decline in response

Reinforcement (R)

Increases the likelihood of a behavior

Positive Reinforcement (+R)

Giving a reward to increase behavior

Negative Reinforcement (-R)

Removing or reducing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior

Punishment (P)

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Positive Punishment (+P)

giving an unpleasant consequence, behavior is weakened

Negative Punishment (-P)

Taking away something unpleasant, behavior is weakened

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

deliberate use of operant conditioning to modify behavior

ABA works to reduce problems by

-Making it unnecessary

-Teaching a replacement behavior

-making it ineffective for gaining reinforcement

Direct instruction (DI)

structured teaching based on operant principles

Little DI

teacher tells students what to know

Big DI

systematic, scripted, uses reinforcement strategies

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

asserts that children actively construct knowledge through new information, believing that to understand children’s cognitive development, you must not only observe their behavior but also consider why the child behaved that way

cognition

the mental processes we use to think, solve problems, organize information, and remember things

constructivist

someone who believes that learning happens by actively building

schema

a mental framework that helps organize and interpret information