Conservation Biology FINAL

HIPPO

-Habitat Loss
-Invasives
-(Human) population
-Pollution
-Overharvesting

Characteristics of conservation biology

1. preserve the status quo and the potential for species to evolve

2. ecological systems are dynamic, non-equilibriums exist

3. humans are integrated into all systems

4. focus on scarcity and abundance, focus on rare species

5. inexact science, stochasticity present, random perturbations

6. crisis science (michael soule)

7. value-laden science: the intrinsic vs extrinsic value of nature

8. mission-oriented, advocacy-oriented

9. adaptive science, nothing is protected forever

10. legally empowered science

Demographic transition model

• Stage 1 (pre-modern): high CBR and CDR [Africa]

• stage 2 (urbanizing/industrializing): high CBR, lower CDR [Latin America]

• stage 3 (mature/industrial): lower CBR, even lower CDR [USA]

• stage 4 (post-industrial): low CDR, even lower CBR [Europe]

IPAT model

impact = population x ([Affluence]consumption/per person) x ([technology] impact/per unit of consumption)

Ethics vs Morals

• ethics: guiding principles of conduct of an individual or group, influenced by profession, field, organization; professional

• morals: principles on which one’s judgements of right and wrong are based. influenced by society, culture, religion, not related to profession

Moral extensionism

moral and ethical standing beyond ourselves

LULU

• Locally Unwanted Land Use

• creates external costs on those living with close proximity to a LULU (damage to health, poor aesthetics, reduction in home values)

Environmental justice

the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, sexuality, or income with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies

Intrinsic vs extrinsic value of nature

• nature for the sake of nature, reservoir for ecological processes, sustainer of biodiversity, influence on American national character, nourishes arts and letters, connections to religion, guardian of mental health

• medicinal value, bioprospecting, medicine, biochemicals, commercially valuable material (danger- overharvesting)

Ecosystem services

• provisioning: direct use, food, fuel, timber, drinking water

• regulating: indirect use, flood control, water purification, mitigation of climate change, pollution

• cultural: emotional, psychological, recreational benefits, ecotourism

Conventional view of the economy

• households provide labor to agriculture/business

• agriculture/business provides wages to households

• households provide payment for products

• agriculture/business provide products, goods, services

environmental model of the economy

added variables:

• ecosystem services

• waste acceptance and management

• use of natural resources

• consideration of impacts on natural cycles

• recycling the use of goods

tragedy of the commons

• commons: resources that are needed by all but whose productivity is diffuse rather than concentrated, low, or unpredictable in yield, and low in unit value, tend to be kept as communal property

• affluenza: a social condition that arises from the desire to be more wealthy or successful. leads to the greediness that causes the tragedy of the commons.

ecological footprint (in respect to demographic model)

countries that are developed have a much larger ecological footprint than countries that are still developing

NEPA and Nepa process

• declared national environmental policy, required environmental impact statements, created council on environmental quality

• process

  • project on private land that may potentially be damaging to the environment

  • required to do an Environmental Assessment (EA) can lead to 2 conclusions:

    • finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)

    • a more detailed study is needed

      • required to further study their actions and formulate an environmental impact statement (EIS), public can provide input

        • slight alteration and proceed

        • significant environmental damage will be done- project cannot proceed

Endangered Species Act (Key provisions)

• establishment of critical habitat

• establishment of species recovery plan

• “take” prohibition

• federal agency consultation

• international cooperation (CITES)

• administered by US fish and wildlife service, National marine fisheries service

Superfund (History and reauthorization)

• comprehensive environmental response, compensation, and liability act

• identifies and lists hazardous sites

• initially funded by industrial producers of hazardous wastes

• source ended in early 1990

• reauthorized in 1994 (Clinton) after misappropriation of funds

  • increase funding

  • increase liability

  • focuses on remediation and public right to know

Ramsar convention

• international protection of habitats and ecosystems

Stockholm Declaration

• international environmental protection and sustainable development

• principle 21 = sovereign rights of natural resources and respect for other nation’s natural resources

CITES

• convention on international trade in endangered species

• includes both plants and animals

• apendices

  • commercial international trade is prohibited

  • commercial and non-commercial international trade is allowed through issuance of permits and certificates

  • commercial and non-commercial international trade allowed

Basal Convention

• reduction of hazardous waste generation

• restriction of transboundary movements of hazardous wastes except when it is in accordance with the principles of south management

• a regulatory system applying to cases where transboundary movements are permissible

Montreal Protocol

• banned usage of CFC’s, which damaged the ozone layer

Paris Climate Accords

• temperatures

• finance

• differenciation

• emissions objectives

• burden-sharing

• review mechanism

• climate damage

IUCN redlist

• extinct

• extinct in the wild

• critically endangered

• endangered

• vulnerable

• near threatened

• least concern

UN Sustainable development goals

• 17 goals to transform our world

• ex:

  • no poverty

  • zero hunger

  • good health

  • quality education

  • gender equality

  • clean water

  • affordable clean energy

Genetic Drift

change in the frequencies of alleles in a population resulting from sampling error in drawing gametes from the gene pool to make zygotes and from change variation in the survival and/or reproductive success of individuals

• results in nonadaptive evolution

interpreting measurements of polymorphism (no calculations)

• polymorphism = quantifies the fraction of gene loci in which alternative alleles of a gene occur

  • np = number of polymorphic loci

  • k = total number of loci being evaluated

  • solution of 0 = no polymorphism

  • solution of 1 = 100% polymorphism

interpreting measurements of heterozygosity (no calculations)

• heterozygosity (H) = average heterozygosity of the individuals in the populations

• 0 = all individuals in a population are homozygous for the same allele

• 1 = all individuals are heterozygous at that locus

ultimate origin of Vg (genetic diversity)

mutations

fixation index: interpretation and application (no calculations)

0 = subpopulations all have the same allele frequencies

1 = subpopulations are completely different genetically

• additional considerations:

  • measure multiple genes

  • size of subpopulation

  • sex ratios

  • level of endangerment

mutation meltdown (Muller’s Ratchet)

1. frequency of mating between close relative rises

2. heterozygosity is reduced in offspring, reducing the ability of the population to respond to environmental change

3. semi-lethal recessive alleles are expressed in a homozygous condition

4. fecundity reduced

5. mortality increases

6. effective population size becomes even smaller, amplifying the whole process

exponential growth vs logistic growth

different forms of stochastity

• genetic = genetic variability, inbreeding, mutational meltdown

• environmental = natural catastrophes

• demographic = lag phases in population growth, changes in sex ratios, number of mature individuals

• Allee effect = empty club, individuals don’t want to be the first to populate an area

mark-recapture methods

• Quadrats, Transects (Botanical)

• Methods, rules

  • no effect of marking on probability of recapture

  • no effect of marking on survival

  • mixing of marked and unmarked

  • captured individuals are representative of the whole population

  • closed population model- different parameters for open model

  • marks are not lost

study designs to measure populations

• Simple random sampling

  • best way to randomize

  • assume homogenous distribution of population, some areas may be completely unsampled

• stratified random sampling

  • best in non-homogenous environment

  • beta diversity level studies

  • ensures all habitat types are included

• systematic sampling

  • random start, every x paces, etc

  • watch out for pseudoreplication

effective population size: variables that influence Ne, interpretation, and application of values (no calculations)

• absolute population size

• uneven reproductive effort across individuals

• sex ratios

• population fluctuations over time

• consider effect on Ne based on

  • variation in number of progeny

  • unequal sex ratios

  • population fluctuation over time

Demographic transition models: interpretation and application (no calculations)

may have to draw Markov chain and matrices

Minimum population viability

• the population for any given species in any given habitat that is smallest isolated population having 99% change of remaining extant for 1000 years despite the foreseeable efforts of demographic, environmental, and genetic stochasticity, and natural catastrophes

population viability analysis

1. current n (population)

2. population trend “r” or lambda

3. degree to which “r” or lambda fluctuates over “t,” time

4. objectives:

   1. organize existing data about a population

   2. estimate relative risk to the population based on different environmental, demographic, and genetic factors

   3. adaptive management of populations by comparing model predictions to actual population behavior

Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography

immigration rate to an island determined by

1. distance of island to the mainland

2. number of species in the mainland pool that have not established themselves on the island

3. probability that a given species will disperse

determining extinction rate on an island

1. area of the island

2. number of species present on the island (compression hypothesis)

3. probability that a given species on an island will go extinct

habitat loss (what is it)

complete elimination of habitat, along with their biological communities and ecological function

isolation

potential barriers to gene flow

habitat fragmentation

process by which larger, continuous habitats become subdivided into a greater number of small patches

• with 40% habitat loss, interior habitat decreases by 60%

Faunal Relaxation (Newmark)

1. initial exclusion

2. extirpation due to lack of essential resources

3. peril of small Ne- genetic, demographic, and stochastic problems

4. deleterious effects of isolation- rescue effect decreases (gene flow)

5. ecological imbalance (leads to continued decreases in “S”)

metapopulation theory (Levins)

df/dt = c - e

• persistence at a patch requires that colonization > extinction

extinction is a function of:
E = peF
colonization is a function of
C = cf (1 - f)

pe = probability that a population in an occupied patch will become locally extinct

f = fraction occupied

c = measure of how much the probability of colonization changes with “f”

• put together:
  df/dt = cf (1 - f) - pef

types of metapopulations

• island-mainland

• non-equilibrium

• metapopulation

• patchy panmictic

• dissected landscape

metapopulation dynamics

1. sites that are currently unoccupied may be essential for the long-term persistence of the metapopulation

2. reduced dispersal success can cause a metapopulation to become extinct

3. a metapopulation can become extinct long before all of the habitat patches are destroyed

4. the arrangement and connectivity of patches can be just as important as the absolute amount of habitat that remains

managing fragmentation and metapopulations (3 c’s)

• connectedness = physical linkage between habitats

• connectivity = measures the processes by which subpopulations of organisms are interconnected into a functional demographic unit

• corridor = linear landscape element that provides for movement between habitat patches

protected area considerations

• larger over smaller

• high interior/edge ratio

• unique community or ecosystem

• immediate threat

• ecosystem completely protected (boundaries)

• buffer zones present

• coupled-natural human system

• more over less

• closer over farther

• joined by corridors or stepping stones

• more habitat types

• areas managed collectively

conservation priorities (the nature conservancy)
criteria for choosing sites

1. hotspots (high endemism), high level of threat

2. high biodiversity wilderness area, high richness, lower human impacts

• ecological uniqueness

• viability

• threats

• feasability

3 approaches to selecting reserve sites (TNC)

1. greedy richness algorithm

2. greedy rarity algorithm

3. connectivity algorithm

Birdlife International and IUCN define Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) by

• The presence of trigger species

  • globally threatened species

  • geographically concentrated species

• AZE (Alliance for Zero Extinction) areas = highest priority KBAs

AZE designations

• key ecological processes

• consideration of the impact of climate change

• priorities for site and corridor planning

• people must be incorporated into the system

• adaptive management local (intervention monitoring) v status (outcomes monitoring)

Multiple Use Areas layers

• core preserve (protection high)

• intermediate use zone (primitive recreation)

• Intensive management zone (developed camping, livestock grazing, oil and gas exploration)

The land use continuum

approaches to single species management

1. indicator species (may relflect health of other species in system, but what constitutes health, criteria for choosing)

2. flagship species (garner public support, but may not be a good indicator species)

3. umbrella species (conserve a species requiring large land > save other species, but precise habitat requirements may not be known)

4. keystone species (govern the well being of many species, but may be tough to identify)

types of keystone species, examples

1. predators = prevent trophic cascades (sea stars, wolves)

2. modifiers = ecosystem engineers (beavers, elephants)

3. prey = influence predator population dynamics (pacific salmon)

4. mutualisms = link species (hummingbirds and flowering plants)

5. hosts = harbor diversity (quaking aspen)

ecosystem

all organisms in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles

ecosystem processes (examples)

hydrology, geology, disturbance regimes, energy flow

Pros and Cons of ecosystem management

pros:

• keeping the system healthy will allow all components to thrive

• holistic approach to conservation biology

• focus on ecosystem processes

cons:

• different definitions of ecosystem management

• potential issues with focusing on ecosystem processes

• different views on humans as a part of the system

central characteristics of ecosystem management

1. the geographic units of management are defined by ecological criteria

2. achieve environmental, social, and economic sustainability

3. cross-sectional, considering interactions between various sectors of human activity

4. proactive- works to optimize inherent tradeoffs in the management of natural resources among various sectors

5. inclusive and collaborative- encouraging participation from all stakeholders

6. adaptive and flexible- uses monitoring and modeling to make course corrections

what makes ecosystem management difficult

• insufficient understanding of ecological processes

• an acknowledgement of open systems = where are the boundaries

• management may restrict human activity, people may object to restrictions

• management goals vary among management organizations and may not have congruent goals

PELA

• plan

• execution

• learning

• adapting

examples of performance indicators

• biomass

• productivity

• structure

• species richness

• effective population size

• compostition

• resistance

• resilience

• functional diversity

principles of good management

• maintain critical ecological processes

• goals and objectives should come from ecological understanding of system

• minimize external threats to maximize external benefits

• conserve evolutionary processes

• management should be adaptive and minimally intrusive

ex-situ conservation

off-site conservation- the protection and management of biodiversity in artificial, human-built environments

goals of ex-situ

1. substitutes for wild individuals and populations that can be used in biological research (research)

2. development of care and management techniques (education)

3. remnant of those species for which there is no immediate opportunity to survive in the wild (education)

4. demographic and genetic reservoirs supplement wild populations (management)

history of zoos

• 5th to 18th centuries = royal menageries, private exhibition and entertainment, symbols of wealth and power

• 18th to 20th centuries = traveling menageries, public exhibition and entertainment, cages, (animal crackers cars)

• 20th century = zoological parks, living museum, species management, dioramas

• 21st century = conservation centers, environmental resource center, immersion exhibits

how do we reduce adaptation to captivity?

1. reduce the amount of time in captivity

2. reduce the strength of selection in captivity (interactions with humans)

3. add more immigrants (unrelated) from wild or captive populations to slow the rate of genetic adaptation

species360 (what is it, what are the plant equivalent)

online database of wild animals that are under human care in more that 1100 zoos and aquariums in 96 countries

• garden search

• plant search

• threat search

captive breeding techniques and considerations

• cross fostering/surrogacy

• artificial insemination

• cloning, resurrection biology, species revivalism

• maintaining gene diversity

• considerations of inbreeding depression (use of species360 and SSPs)

• considerations of behavioral maladaption

• cost and continuity

reintroduction

the release of captive-bred of wild-caught individuals into an ecologically suitable site within their historical range where the species no longer occurs

reinforcement (captive breeding)

restocking, augmentation, involves releasing individuals into an existing population to increase its size and genetic diversity

introduction

moving organisms outside their historical range (climate change)

coefficient of kinship vs coefficient of relatedness

• % chance of picking the same allele (with multiple to choose from) vs

• % of genes shared

• kinship values are halved!!!

genetic diversity calculation

genetic diversity = (1 - population mean kinship)

maximum avoidance of inbreeding- how do you retain gene diversity?

1. grow the population to its captive carrying capacity as fast as possible

2. maximize the number of breeders in each subsequent generation

3. sex ratios

4. reduce fluctuations in population size

soft release

a gradual and controlled reintroduction of animals bred in captivity to their natural environment

• gradual introduction

• providing support

• monitoring and assessment

native species

indigenous, species living within its natural range

endemic

only found in one area

exotic/alien species

any species not found in its native range (NOT NECESSARILY INVASIVE)

invasive alien species (IAS)

exotic or introduced species that causes ecological and economic damage in its non-native range

how do invasive species spread

• traveling and luggage

• ships and boats

• pets or pest control

• escaping climate change

• migration

establishment of IAS

1. empty niche hypothesis (exploit niches not filled by natives)

2. novel weapons hypothesis (gain advantage over natives with chemicals or weapons)

3. enemy release hypothesis (alien species released from top-down control, natural enemies are not transported)

4. novel environments hypothesis (humans create suitable environments)