AP Psychology Unit 1 (copy)

hallucinogens

psychiatric drugs, distort perceptions & evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input - LSD, Mushrooms, THC

addiction

compulsive need for & use of a drug

stimulants

increase neural activity & speed up body functions

agonists

are chemicals in drugs that can bind and activate receptors in dendrites, thus providing the associated feeling

soma

cell body, which contains all the DNA, and other essential parts for keeping the neuron alive

glial cells

support and protect neurons by providing structural support, insulating nerve fibers, maintaining homeostasis, removing waste during sleep, and assisting in signal transmission

axon

the long threadlike part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells, electrochemical messages are sent through here, covered by myelin sheaths

synapse

a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.

dendrite

branch, threadlike extension of the cell body that receives messages through neurochemicals

sensory neurons

detect a stimulus (such as touching a hot surface) and transmit the sensory information from the peripheral nervous system to the spinal cord in the central nervous system

interneurons

located within the spinal cord, process the incoming sensory information and form connections between sensory neurons and motor neurons, facilitating a rapid response

motor neurons

carry the response signal from the spinal cord to the muscles or glands, triggering a quick, involuntary action (like pulling your hand away from the hot surface) without involving the brain

neurotransmission

multistep communication process between neurons that occurs nearly instantly

all-or-nothing basis

meaning once the threshold is reached, the neuron will fire completely; if the threshold is not met, no action potential occurs

resting potential

at rest, a neuron maintains a stable, negative internal charge compared to its external environment, creating a state of readiness for activation

dopamine

is a neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, memory, attention, and regulation of body movements; it plays a significant role in motivation to pursue rewards

serotonin

is a neurotransmitter that contributes to feelings of well-being and happiness. It also regulates mood, appetite, digestion, sleep, memory, and sexual desire

norepinephrine

is a neurotransmitter and hormone that is involved in the body's "fight or flight" response, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to muscles

glutamate

is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and central nervous system, essential for synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)

is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, helping to reduce neuronal excitability and regulate muscle tone, thereby promoting relaxation and reducing stress and anxiety

endorphins

are neurotransmitters produced by the central nervous system and pituitary gland that act as natural painkillers

substance p

is a neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system; it also plays a role in inflammation and stress responses

acetylcholine

is a neurotransmitter involved in many functions, including muscle contraction, arousal, attention, memory, and learning

hormones

are slow, systemic chemical signals that generally travel through the blood to act on tissues in the body

adrenaline

is a hormone released by the adrenal glands in response to stress, increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supply by triggering the "fight or flight" response

leptin

is a hormone produced by fat cells that helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger, thereby promoting satiety and reducing food intake

ghrelin

is a hormone produced in the stomach that stimulates appetite, increases food intake, and promotes fat storage by signaling the brain to induce the feeling of hunger

melatonin

regulates sleep-wake cycles by signaling the body to prepare for sleep

oxytocin

plays a crucial role in social bonding, sexual reproduction, childbirth, and the release of breast milk

withdrawal

the severe discomfort and distress after discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

depressants

are a class of drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions; the three primary subgroups of depressants are: alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates

reflex arc

interconnection between neurons of the central and peripheral nervous systems

threshold

When a neuron receives a stimulus that reaches a certain critical level, it triggers an action potential, initiating neural transmission

refractory period

following an action potential, during which it temporarily cannot fire again, ensuring that action potentials only move in one direction and maintain a consistent firing rate

reuptake

after neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and bind to receptors on the post-synaptic neuron, they are reabsorbed by the pre-synaptic neuron for reuse

excitatory

(making an action potential more likely

inhibitory

(making an action potential less likely)

antagonists

chemicals that block receptors

corpus callosum

A series of neurons that exists between each hemisphere and allows the two sides to communicate seamlessly

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

brain

central organ of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information, regulating bodily functions, and enabling cognition, emotions, and behaviors

brain stem

connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls vital functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and sleep cycles

reticular activating system

functions as network of neurons in the brain stem that regulates wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions, and filters incoming sensory information

cerebellum

coordinates voluntary movements, balance, and motor skills, and contributes to cognitive functions like attention and language

cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain, is responsible for complex functions such as perception, thought, language, and conscious awareness

occipital lobes

located at the back of the brain, they process visual information and are involved in visual perception

temporal lobes

located on the sides of the brain, they are involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, memory, and emotional responses

parietal lobes

situated at the top and back of the brain, they process sensory information related to touch, temperature, and pain, and help with spatial orientation and body awareness

frontal lobes

located at the front of the brain, they are involved in decision-making, problem-solving, planning, voluntary movement, and controlling behavior and emotions

brain laterization

the tendency for some neural functions to be specialized to one side of the brain or the other

what did paul broca discover?

discovered that the left hemisphere largely controls language expression and Broca’s area

broca’s area

an area of the frontal lobe that directs muscle movements involved in speech;

aphasia

the inability to produce or formulate language

what did wernicke discover?

a region of the temporal lobe on the left hemisphere responsible for language comprehension; this is known as Wernicke’s Area

plasticity

brain’s ability to change or adapt by developing new or alternative neural pathways from existing neurons

neurogenesis

the brain can slowly create small amounts of new neurons

EEG (electroencephalography)

measures electrical activity of the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp, useful for studying brain waves and diagnosing conditions like epilepsy

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)

A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow, allowing researchers to observe which brain areas are involved in specific tasks

case studies

In-depth examinations of individual subjects, often with unique brain injuries or conditions, providing detailed insights into the relationship between brain structures and functions

surgical procedures (lesioning)

Involves deliberately damaging specific areas of the brain to study the resulting changes in behavior and cognitive functions, helping to identify the roles of different brain regions

sympathetic nervous system (arousing)

prepares the body for action through the “fight-or-flight” syndrome.

parasympathetic nervous system (calming)

slows organ & gland activity to conserve the body’s energy & to refuel the body again

hindbrain

lower portion - vital functions, heart rate, respiration & balance

what are the three parts of the hindbrain?

medulla, pons, and cerebellum

medulla

part of brain stem, connects brain to spinal cord, regulates vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

pons