ap psych unit 2 vocab

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Bottom-Up Processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

Top-Down Processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

Perceptual Set

A predisposition or readiness to perceive something in a particular way

Closure

the tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Figure and Ground

the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

Proximity

the grouping of objects or items that are close to each other.

Similarity

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

Attention

Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

Selective Attention

The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness

Binocular Depth Cues

Cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes

Retinal Disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance — the greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object.

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes cross when looking at an object

Monocular Depth Cues

Aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye

Relative Clarity

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects

Relative Size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller image is farther away

Texture Gradient

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals with increasing distance.

Linear Perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Interposition

monocular cue for depth perception; if one object partially blocks our view of another object, we perceive it as closer

Apparent Movement

An illusion of movement perception that occurs when stimuli in different locations are flashed one after another with the proper timing.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Availability Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Mental Set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

Framing

The way an issue is posed and its effect on decisionmaking

Gambler's Fallacy

The belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

a framing effect in which people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation

Executive Function

higher-order, complex cognitive processes, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

Creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Divergent Thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Convergent Thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Functional Fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Storage

the retention of encoded information over time

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

Prospective Memory

remembering to do something at some future time

Episodic Memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

Semantic Memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

Implicit Memory

Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously

Procedural Memory

T-he gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things

Long-Term Potentiation

An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

Working Memory Model

An explanation that sees short-term memory as an active store holding several pieces of information simultaneously.

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

Central Executive

The part of working memory that is responsible for monitoring and directing attention and other mental resources.

Phonological Loop

the part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory where we create mental images to remember visual information

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Multi-Store Model

Explanation of memory that sees information flowing through a series of storage systems

Echoic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Iconic Memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Effortful Processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Levels of Processing Model

model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time

Shallow Encoding

Encoding based on surface features (what something looks or sounds like)

Deep Encoding

encoding based on an event's meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience

Structural Encoding

Relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding information according to the sound of the word used to identify it.

Semantic Encoding (Quiz 1 Cut-off)

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

Mnemonic Device

Method of improving memory by associating new information with previously learned information

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units

Categories

networks of associated memories that have features in common with each other

Hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

Spacing Effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

Massed Practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

Distributed Practice

Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Serial Position Effect

Our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

Primacy Effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well.

Recency Effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short-Term Memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

Maintenance Rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

Elaborative Rehearsal

a method of transferring information from short term memory into long term memory by making that information meaningful in some way

Memory Retention

Ability to recall information

Autobiographical Memory

The memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

Anterograde Amnesia

the inability to transfer new information from the short-term store into the long-term store

Alzheimer's Disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to remember events from early childhood

Recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

Recognition

the ability to match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Context Dependent Memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

Mood Congruent Memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

State Dependent Memory

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed

Testing Effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes.

Forgetting Curve

A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.

Encoding Failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

Proactive Interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information