american gov

anarchy

The condition of human beings without government.

aristocracy

Name given by ancient Greeks to a form of government based on rule by a few virtuous citizens. (Contrast with Oligarchy.)

Authoritarian Government

A label for nondemocratic governments—that is, governments that are uncontrolled by the people because the people are not empowered by institutions and legal rights to exercise such control. In this textbook, this term is used interchangeably with Autocratic Government and Nondemocratic Government. (contrast with Democracy; see also Closed Autocracy and Electoral Autocracy)

Authority (Legitimate Authority)

To have legitimate authority means one has a right to issue commands and to punish those who do not comply with the commands.

Autocratic Government (or Autocracy

A label for nondemocratic governments—that is, governments that are uncontrolled by the people because the people are not empowered by institutions and legal rights to exercise such control. In this textbook, this term is used interchangeably with Authoritarian Government and Nondemocratic Government. (contrast with Democracy; see also Closed Autocracy and Electoral Autocracy)

Bureaucratic Agencies

Organizational units within the executive branch of government responsible for implementing specific public policies and/or providing public services.

Checks and Balances

Principle of government that means the different branches of government are given enough power over one another to keep each within their proper constitutional limits.

Civil Liberties

Legal rights binding on the government and designed to protect individuals from abuse of power by government. (See also Civil Rights and Human Rights.)

Civil Rights

Legal rights that aim at eliminating and/or remedying various forms of unequal treatment in American society, particularly discrimination against persons based on such characteristics as race, sex, gender, sexual orientation, religion, and disability. (See also Civil Liberties and Human Rights.)

Classical Liberalism

A political tradition that developed in Europe beginning in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and emphasizes individual freedom, limited government, the rule of law, and the protection of individual rights. The term liberal democracy reflects the influence of this tradition: it describes a democracy in which government power is constrained and individual rights are protected. (see also Liberal Democracy)

Closed Autocracy

A form of autocratic government in which the people have no real control over their rulers, who are not chosen through genuine multiparty elections at all. Basic freedoms such as speech and association are largely absent, and citizens have little or no ability to remove those in power. It is the most restrictive of V-Dem's four types of government. (see also Autocracy; compare with Electoral Autocracy, Electoral Democracy, and Liberal Democracy)

Collective Action Problem

A situation where free riding threatens to prevent a group from providing a public good. (See also Free Riding and Public Goods.)

Constitutional Governments:

Governments that are effectively bound by fundamental laws.

Courts of Law (or just Courts)

Tribunals with authority to resolve legal disputes between parties and that make authoritative judgments that guide and/or limit executive branch enforcement and implementation of laws.

Democracy (or Democratic Government)

A type of government in which the people, inclusively understood, exercise control over the government through institutions and legal rights designed to give them that control. (contrast with Autocracy, Authoritarian Government, and Nondemocracy; see also Electoral Democracy, Liberal Democracy, Direct Democracy, and Representative Democracy)

Direct Democracy

A form of democratic government in which all the citizens directly participate in making and enforcing laws. (Contrast with Representative Democracy.)

Electoral Autocracy

A form of autocratic government that holds competitive elections for its highest offices but manipulates them so heavily—through fraud, intimidation, a tilted playing field, or restrictions on speech and organizing—that the elections cannot genuinely be used to choose or remove those in power. The contests serve more to make the rulers appear legitimate than to hold them accountable. (see also Autocracy; compare with Closed Autocracy, Electoral Democracy, and Liberal Democracy)

Electoral Democracy

A form of government in which the people genuinely control who governs: leaders are chosen through multiparty elections that are free and fair, nearly all adult citizens may vote, and citizens are free enough to speak, publish, and organize to make those elections meaningful. What an electoral democracy lacks are the further guarantees of a liberal democracy—effective limits on government power and equal protection for individual rights. In V-Dem's classification, it clears the threshold for democracy but sits one step below liberal democracy.  (see also Democracy; compare with Closed Autocracy, Electoral Autocracy, and Liberal Democracy)

Executive Branch

A set of institutions in government with authority to put laws into effect, including, but not limited to, through the use of physical force by police or military.

Federalism

Principle of government that means authority is partly divided and partly shared between the federal (aka “central” or “national”) government and the state governments.(Contrast with Unitary National System.)

Freedom of Association

The right to create and join associations such as political parties and interest groups, and the right of such associations to take actions to advance the interests and goals of its members. (See also Political Parties and Interest Groups.)

Freedom of Expression

General term for the ability to express one's beliefs, thoughts, ideas, and opinions (including in person, in print, on film, on the air, or digitally) free from government restriction or intimidation. 

Freedom of the Press

The freedom of journalists and news media organizations to report information without fear of censorship, financial penalty, imprisonment, physical abuse, or intimidation by government.

Free Ride

To enjoy the benefits of a public good without bearing part of the burden of providing it. (See also Public Good and Collective Action Problem.)

Freedom of Expression

General term for the ability to express one's beliefs, thoughts, ideas, and opinions (including in person, in print, on film, on the air, or digitally) free from government restriction or intimidation. 

Freedom of the Press

The freedom of journalists and news media organizations to report information without fear of censorship, financial penalty, imprisonment, physical abuse, or intimidation by government.

Free Ride

To enjoy the benefits of a public good without bearing part of the burden of providing it. (See also Public Good and Collective Action Problem.)

Fundamental Law

Law that is supreme over ordinary laws and establishes processes of ordinary lawmaking and enforcement. In American government, the law of the constitution is understood to be fundamental law. (See also Law of the Constitution; contrast with Ordinary Law.)

Government

A set of enduring institutions that claim legitimate authority to use force and make laws binding upon the people of a particular territory.

Human Rights

Moral rights thought to be universally held by all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. ____ are considered to be essential to human freedom and dignity, and include, among others, the right to life and liberty; to freedom from slavery and torture; and to the freedom of belief, opinion, and expression. _____ are protected in the U.S. Constitution through civil liberties and civil rights. (See also Civil Liberties and Civil Rights.)

Interest Group

An association that seeks to influence government to benefit members of the association or advance a cause they share a belief in.

International System

The system of rules, norms and behaviors that shape, and are shaped by, relations between governments around the world.

Judiciary (or Judicial Branch)

The branch of government consisting of courts of law. (See also Courts of Law.)

Kingship (or Monarchy)

Name given by ancient Greeks to a form of government based on rule by one virtuous citizen. (Contrast with Tyranny.)

Law of the Constitution

The law written in a constitutional document that is considered Fundamental Law (i.e. that is supreme over “Ordinary Laws”). (See also Fundamental Law; contrast with Ordinary Laws.)

Laws

Written authoritative rules binding upon the people of a particular territory.

Legislative Branch (or Legislature)

An institution of government that makes laws (i.e. “legislates”).

Legitimate Authority

The right to issue commands and to punish those who do not comply with the commands.

Liberal Democracy

A system of government that combines democracy with the rule of law, constitutional protections for human rights, separation of powers, checks and balances, and other institutions designed to limit government power. (See also Democracy, Rule of Law, Constitutional Government, Human Rights,  Separation of Powers, Checks and Balances, and Limited Government.)

Limited Government

Principle that holds government must be empowered to serve its legitimate purposes, but it must also be limited and controlled in its powers so that it does not pose an unacceptable threat to the fundamental rights and interests of the governed.

Monarchy (or Kingship)

Name given by ancient Greeks to a form of government based on rule by one virtuous citizen. (Contrast with Tyranny.)

Negative Incentive

A threat to impose a burden if one does not behave in a desired way. Sometimes called a “Stick.” (Contrast with Positive Incentive.)

Nondemocratic Governments

Governments that are uncontrolled by the people because the people are not empowered by institutions and legal rights to exercise such control. In this textbook, this term is used interchangeably with Authoritarian Government and Autocratic Government. (contrast with Democracy; see also Closed Autocracy and Electoral Autocracy)

Oligarchy

Name given by ancient Greeks to a form of government based on rule by a few self-serving citizens. (Contrast with Aristocracy.)

Ordinary Laws

Written rules, such as statutes, ordinances and regulatory rules, that are made and enforced by government and that are binding on individuals. These are distinguished from the Law of the Constitution, which is the Fundamental Law that is binding on government.

Political Party

An organization that seeks to influence government by getting members elected to office and by coordinating the actions of elected officials in government.

Politics

The nonviolent activities free citizens engage in as they strive to exert power within or over government.

Positive Incentive

A promise to provide a benefit in exchange for behaving in a desired way. Sometimes called a “Carrot.” (Contrast with Negative Incentive.))

Power (Relational Power)

The ability to get a person or group to do what they otherwise would not do. For any possible two-way power relationship, if the individuals or groups who are part of the relationship are called “A” and “B,” then A has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do what B would not otherwise do.

Power of the Purse

The government’s ability to influence behavior by using money—through taxing and/or spending—as a positive incentive or negative incentive. In American government, the legislative branch controls the power of the purse. (Contrast with the Power of the Sword, which is wielded by the executive branch.)

Power of the Sword

The government’s ability to influence behavior by using, or threatening to use, physical force through the police or military. In American government, the executive branch wields the power of the sword. (Contrast with the Power of the Purse, which is controlled by the legislative branch.)

Propaganda

A form of persuasive communication that urges people to support, or take actions to advance, a political goal by manipulating their irrational biases and concealing from them things they reasonably should consider.

Private Good

Good that individuals within a group can be excluded from enjoying. (Contrast with Public Good.)

Public Good

A good that, once provided, no one in a group can be excluded from enjoying. Put another way, it is a non-excludable good. (Contrast with Private Good.)

Relational Power

The ability to get a person or group to do what they otherwise would not do. For any possible two-way power relationship, if the individuals or groups who are part of the relationship are called “A” and “B,” then A has power over B to the extent that A can get B to do what B would not otherwise do.

Representative Democracy:

A form of democratic government in which the citizens who make and enforce laws are accountable to (i.e., are controlled by), and do so on behalf of (i.e., represent), the majority of citizens who do not directly participate in making and enforcing laws. (Contrast with Direct Democracy.)

Rule of Law

The idea that all citizens, including government officials, are bound by laws. The idea further entails that all government actions must be authorized by pre-existing laws and that lawmakers may not exempt themselves from the laws they make.

Separation of Powers

Principle of government that means legislative, executive, and judicial powers are exercised by separate branches of government consisting of distinct institutions that are staffed by officials who serve in only one institution at a time.

Sham Constitution

Document with fundamental “laws” that allegedly bind a particular government, but that, in reality, are routinely violated by the government.

Sovereignty

The right of a government to govern its territory without interference from other governments and to use military force to defend itself and its territory from foreign aggression.

Tyranny

Name given by ancient Greeks to a form of government based on rule by one self-serving citizen. (Contrast with Monarchy and Kingship.)

Unitary National System

A system of government in which all local governments are subordinate to a central / national government. (Contrast with Federalism.)

politics

The nonviolent activities free citizens engage in as they strive to exert power within or over government

Ideology

a set of ideas about the proper role of government in promoting a good and just society that emanate from core values and beliefs about human nature and how the world works

Ideological spectrum

The idea that political ideologies range on a continuum from the extreme left to the extreme right

Labor unions

An organized association of workers formed to protect and promote the workers’ rights and interests

collectively bargain

Negotiations between employers and organized employees (typically as represented by a labor union) over the basic terms of employment, including wages, benefits, and physical working conditions

welfare state

Name given to a set of federal government programs that seek to promote the economic security, health, and well-being of citizens, especially those in financial or social need, which began to develop in the United States in the 1930s

affirmative action policies

Government requirements placed on colleges and employers to assure adequate representation of historically underrepresented groups (particularly women and racial minorities) in admissions and hiring

public opinion

An aggregate measure of the beliefs, attitudes, judgements, and/or preferences of a population over matters of public concern

population

The groups whose aggregate opinion a public opinion researcher seeks to know

sample

A small subsert of individuals drawn from a population with which public opinion researchers seek to estimate the aggregate opinion of the population

social desirability bias

Inaccurate measure of a sample’s aggregate opinion due to survery respondents answering questions inaccurately because they to want to put themselves in the best light possible and thereforre are worried their true opinions are offensive or out-of-bounds

ordering effects

Form of survey measurement error in which the order that questions are asked influences responses

double-barreled question

Question-wording error in which survey researchers ask respondents a question about two or more issues but only allow them to give one answer

leading-question

Question-wording error in which a question is worded in a way that sways the respondent toward one side of an argument

representative sample

A sample is one which proportionately reflects the relevant diversity of opinions of the population from which it is drawn

demographically representative

A sample that proportionally reflects the racial, ethnic, religious, gender, and class diversity of the population

probability sampling

Approaches to sampling that seek to achieve a representative sample, often using random selection which means every person in the population has equal probability of being selected into the sample

random digit dialing

A common probability sampling technique in which a computer randomly generates phone numbers that are used for calling potential poll respondents

non-probability sampling

Approaches to sampling that seek to achieve a representative sample without reliance on random selection,

nonresponse bias

Failure to achieve a representative sample due to individuals with certain characteristics being less likely to respond to surveys than others, thus resulting, in a sample that under-represents teh characteristics of those who were less likely to respond

selection bias

Failure to achieve a representative sample due to researchers targeting a group of potential respondents who are not sufficiently representative

margin of error

The amount, within a specified level of confidence (typically 95% or higher), that a measured sample value can be expected to deviate from the true population of value

bandwagon effect

A phenomenon in which individuals decide to support a cause or candidate simply because opinion polls demonstrate the popularity of the cause or candidate

poll aggregators

Entity that tracks and aggregates (often by averging) the results from multiple polls in an effort to gain a more accurate estimate of a population value

delegate model of representation

Normative conception of political representation that holds the first duty of representatives is to follow the opinions of their constituents. By this view, the people who vote for representatives are the ones who should exercise judgment over questions of public policy, and if representatives do not follow their lead, they deserve to be voted out of office in the next election. (Contrast with Trustee Model of Representation)

constituents

the voting citizens whom which an elected representative is democratically accountable

trustee model of representation

Normative conception of political representation that says an elected representative is obligated to act according to their own best judgment of what is just or what will promote the public good even if it is unpopular and leads to their being voted out of office in the next election. (Contrast with Delegate Model of Representation)

direct democracy

A form of democratic government in which all of the citizens directly participate in making and enforcing laws. (Contrast with Representative Democracy.)

representative democracy

A form of democratic government in which the citizens who make and enforce laws are accountable to (i.e., are controlled by), and do so on behalf of (i.e., represent), the majority of citizens who do not directly participate in making and enforcing laws. (Contrast with Direct Democracy.)

Political Predispositions

Pre-existing attitudes, values, beliefs, and social identities that condition how one formulates opinions about public affairs.

Partisan Motivated Reasoning

The psychological process of forming opinions out of partisan bias rather than an effort to be fair minded or accurate.

Party Polarization

Increasing differences between the two major parties based on both ideology and social group identities.

epigenetics

The study of how environmental factors can affect gene activity without changing the DNA sequence itself.

Political socialization

The process by which our social environment leads us to develop attitudes, values, beliefs, and social identities that shape our orientation toward government and politics.

funnel of causality

Political scientific theory that posits that over the course of a lifetime, the environmental factors tha influence our political predispositions become fewer in number and more limited in impact-just as space becomes more limited as material moves from the wide end of a funnel toward the narrow end. (See also Political Socialization and Primacy Principle)

primary principle

Idea that early socialization creates a base of values, attitudes, and beliefs that tend to be quite stable and that this early learning shapes and conditions all future learning.

Agents of political socialization

Those who have a formative influence on our political attitudes, values, beliefs, and identities. The most prominent agents of socialization are family, school, peer groups, religious institutions, and the media.

political culture

the prevailing political attitudes and beliefs within a society or region