content after quiz B

urinary system, digestive system, respiratory system, reproductive system, pharmacology

glomerulus

where filtration occurs

convoluted tubules and loop of Henle

where reabsorption occurs

collecting duct

were urine/filtrate are secreted to move to bladder for storage before voiding re

obligatory reabsorption of water (fixed)

reabsorption of water for proximal tubule and loop of Henle

facultative reabsorption of water (variable)

reabsorption of water for distal tubule and collecting duct

ureters

move urine from kidneys to bladder

urinary bladder

stores urine

urethra

tube connecting bladder to outside

detrusor muscle

smooth muscle layer contracting and relaxing based on urine volume

internal sphincter

made of smooth muscle, involuntary control

external sphincter

made of skeletal muscle, voluntary control

storage phase

sympathetic nervous system relaxes detrusor muscle and contracts internal sphincter, somatic nervous system contracts external sphincter

micturition

urination/voiding of urine

voiding phase

parasympathetic nervous system contracts detrusor muscle to release urine, sympathetic nervous system relaxes internal sphincter, somatic nervous system relaxes external sphincter

RAAS

renin-angiotensinogen-aldosterone-system

angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)

from lungs, converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II

renin

from kidneys, converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I

ANP

from atrium of heart

BNP

from ventricles of heart

antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

hormone regulating water balance, released from hypothalamus

calcitonin

released from thyroid gland, lowers calcium levels

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

released from parathyroid gland, increases calcium levels

calcitriol

increases calcium reabsorption from dietary intake, released from kidneys

Erythropoietin (EPO)

released by kidneys and regulates RBC production in bone marrow

osmosis

movement of water from an area of low solute concentration to an area of high solute concentration

glomerular hydrostatic pressure

pressure that forces material out of blood and into renal tubule via diffusion

capsular hydrostatic pressure

pressure of fluid inside Bowman’s capsule against GHP

colloid osmotic pressure

proteins in glomerular capillaries try to draw fluid back from Bowman’s capsule

nasal cavity function

channels air into pharynx, warms and moistens air

nasal cavity form

mucous membranes, highly vascular

pharynx function

channels air into larynx, warms and moistens air

pharynx form

mucous membrane, L-shaped bend, highly vascular

larynx function

channels air into trachea, modulate vocalisations, excludes solids and liquids from oesophagus

larynx form

rings of cartilage and muscle, glottis, laryngeal muscles (sound control) and epiglottis

trachea function

channels air into lungs

trachea form

flexible tube, anterior to oesophagus

bronchus

“branches” coming from trachea into lungs

alveolar

composed of multiple alveoli

bronchioles

composed of multiple alveolar

vascular epithelium

warms cold air because it is highly vascular

mucous membrane

damp and stick, moistens dry air

nasal conchae

L-shaped bend in pharynx ensures air spends more time in contact with vascular epithelium and mucous membranes

sneeze reflex

triggered by irritation of nasal mucosa, expels irritants

alveolar macrophages

embedded in alveoli walls, destroys particulates and pathogens

mucociliary escalator

ciliated goblet cells sweep debris towards pharynx to be expelled or swallowed

tonsils

detect and tap inhaled pathogens and flush them via lymphatic system

pressure

the more stuff in the container, the more pressure the stuff exerts on the container

pressure gradient

movement of substances from area of high pressure to low pressure

competing pressures

divider moved by pressure gradient until pressure is equal

quiet/tidal breathing

breathing under normal circumstances

visceral pleura

pleura stuck to lungs

parietal pleura

pleura stuck to ribs and diaphragm

intrapleural cavity

cavity between lungs and ribs

inhalation

diaphragm pulls down, intrapleural cavity expands, lungs expand, air moves into lungs

exhalation

diaphragm relaxes, intrapleural cavity constricts, lungs constrict, air moves out of lungs

ventilation rate

volume moved with each inhalation or exhalation x breaths per minute

forced breathing

active manipulation of breathing that uses inspiratory and expiratory reserve volume

external respiration

occurs between lungs (alveoli) and blood supply

internal respiration

occurs between blood supply and cells/systemic tissues

conducting zone

passage moving air into and out of lungs

respiratory zone

involved in gas exchange directly

chemoreceptors

detect gas levels and adjust alveolar ventilation rate and depth

baroreceptors

detect changes in pressure and vasodilate/constrict blood vessels

chemo/mechano receptors

detect irritants and cause cough/sneeze reflex

pontine respiratory group, vental respiratory group, dorsal respiratory group

brain autonomic respiratory centers

cerebral motor cortex, pons and medulla oblongata

voluntary control of respiratory system

ingestion

occurs when food/liquid enters the digestive tract via the oral cavity

secretion

release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers and salts from the epithelium of the digestive tract and glandular organs into the digestive tract

mechanical processing

physical breakdown of food into smaller particles that make materials easier to propel along the digestive tract

digestion

chemical breakdown of food into small organic fragments suitable for absorption by the digestive epithelium

absorption

the movement of organic molecules, electrolytes, vitamins and water across the digestive tract, then into the blood or lymph

defecation

eliminations of wastes, indigestible substances, bacteria, dead cells from the body etc

mucosa

inner lining of digestive tract consisting of epithelium and moistened by glandular secretions

submucosa

dense, irregular connective tissue binding mucosa to muscularis externa

muscularis externa

inner circular layer of smooth muscle essential for agitation and formations of valves. essential for mechanical processes such as peristalsis and segmentation

serosa

outermost layer of epithelium which covers the muscularis externa along with most portions of the digestive tract

accessory organs

liver, gall bladder, pancreas

mastication (chewing)

uses teeth, tongue, palate to manipulate food and increase surface area of food particles to come into contact with digestive enzymes in saliva, for example

peristalsis

waves of muscular contractions that move bolus along digestive tract

chemical digestion

where digestive enzymes break the bonds between component molecules of organic molecules

lipid digestion

triglycerides into monoglycerides and fatty acids

carbohydrate digestion

polysaccharides into monosaccharides

protein digestion

polypeptides into amino acids

catabolism

break down of larger/complex molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy

anabolism

use of simple molecules to make larger organic molecules, which consume energy

basal metabolic rate

minimum resting energy expenditure of an awake, alert person

dephosphorylated

ATP → ADP + Pi

phosphorylated

ADP + Pi → ATP

glycolysis

occurs in cytosol, converts glucose into 2 pyruvate, resulting in net gain of 2 ATP

Kreb’s cycle

occurs in mitochondrial matrix, produces 2 ATP from 1 glucose

electron transfer chain

occurs in mitochondrial cristae, pumps hydrogen ions and produces 26-28 ATP

glycogenolysis

stored glycogen release glucose into bloodstream when glucose levels decrease, activated by glucagon

glycogenesis

2 glucose molecules join together and are stored in liver and skeletal muscle cells, triggered by insulin

gluconeogenesis

production of glucose triggered by glucagon and cortisol

lipolysis

triglycerides broken down into 1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids to enter the Kreb’s cycle

lipogenesis

occurs in liver, glucose or amino acids can be converted and assembled into triglycerides