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all topics in one place for igsce biology🧬

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172 Terms

1
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How many chromosomes are in egg cell?

23 chromosomes

2
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Where does the embryo grow?

The uterus (womb) is where the embryo grows

3
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What does ovary produces?

ovary produces ova and sex hormones

4
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what passes through urthra?

Semen and urine pass through uretha

5
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sprem

a muscular tube that stores sperm

6
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What are the steps of pregnancy?

  • Once the embryo had implanted, the placenta develops

  • During pregnancy the amnion (amniotic sac) encloses the developing embryo

  • provides oxygen and nutrients to the growing embryo

  • removes waste such as urea and carbon dioxide

  • secretes female hormones that maintain the pregnancy

7
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What is the role of amniotic fluid?

to protect the developing embryo

8
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What are the secondary sexual characteristics?

Male:

  • underarm hair grows

  • facial hair starts to grow

  • voice breaks

Female:

  • underarm hair grows

  • period starts

  • hips widen

9
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What are the properties of glucose?

  • stored as starch

  • used in respiration to release energy

  • stored in fruit as sucrose

  • turned into proteins with the addition of nitrogen so the plant can grow

  • turned into cellulose to make cell walls

10
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What does the rate of photosynthesis rely on?

1) Light intensity: the higher this is, the faster the rate of photosynthesis provided there is lots of carbon dioxide and the temperature

2) Amount of CO2: the higher the carbon dioxide level, the faster the rate of photosynthesis again, provided there is plenty of light and a suitable

3) Temperature: as the temperature rises, the rate of photosynthesis increases - provided there is plenty of carbon dioxide and light. This is due to the temperature affects the enzymes controlled photosynthesis

11
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What experiment is used to test for starch?

Iodine Test

12
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What color changes would we observe if starch is present?

Blue-blackish color

13
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Why is ethanol used in the test for starch using iodine?

Ethanol removed the green pigment chlorophyll from the leaf so the results can be seen more clearly

14
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How do you test for CO2?

The soda lime absorbs CO2, so if you leave the plant in the sealed bell jar for a while it will stop photosynthesizing and use up its starch reverses for energy, therefore if you tested a leaf for starch it won’t a positive result

15
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What would be your independent variable for an investigation?

changing one variable (light intensity, temperature or CO2) and all the other variables in the investigation must say controlled

16
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dependent variable

the variable measured which will be the number of bubbles of oxygen in a minutes (repeating the experiment to make it more reliable)

17
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What is the property of a unicellular organisms?

a large surface area

18
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What does xylem transport?

water and dissolved minerals

19
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What does phloem transport?

sugar and amino acids

20
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In what direction does xylem flow?

  • flows in one direction

  • flows upwards

21
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In what direction does phloem flow?

  • flows up or down

    • movement knows as translocation

22
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Why do unicellular organisms have no need for lungs?

they do this as they can just obtain the oxygen they need by diffusion through that cell membrane meaning they don’t need a transport system

23
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Why do multicellular organisms tend to require?

they require transport systems to supply all their cells with what they need fast enough

24
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What does the transport system involves?

a network of veins (or vascular bundles) that run between the roots all the way through the plant to the leaves

25
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diffusion

movement of any substance from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration (down the concentration gradient)

26
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osmosis

the diffusion of water molecules from a higher concentration to a lower concentration

27
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active transport

the movement of substance from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution against the concentration gradient (requires energy from respiration)

  • the movement of substances from a higher concentration to a lower concentration

28
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What are two ways of osmosis?

  • dilute solution contains a higher concentration of water molecules

  • concentrated solution contains a lower concentration of water

29
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partially permeable (semi-permeable)

allows water and small molecules to pass through, but no longer molecules such as starch water potential; how ‘free’ water molecules are able to move (the concentrated a solution is, the lowest its water potential)

30
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What happens to plant cells in pure water?

the cell swells up and the cytoplasm pushes against the cell wall and the cell become turgid

31
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hypertonic

more dilute solution outside the cell

32
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Why is turgor important for plants?

  • Structural Support: keeps cells rigid, helping plants maintain their shape and stand upright for optimal light absorption

  • Growth: enables cell expansion

  • Nutrient Transport: aids in the movement of water and nutrients through the plant

  • Stress Resistance: turgor helps plants cope with environmental stresses by regulating water loss

33
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What happens to a plant cell in concentrated solution?

  • the cell contents lose water by osmosis and the cells shrink

  • the cell membrane starts to pull away from the cell wall. the cell wall becomes flaccid

34
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hypertonic

more concentrated solution outside the cell

35
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What happens to a cell in highly concentrated solution?

the cell membrane pulls away from the cell completely; this is plasmolysis

  • eventually the cell contents shrink so much that the membrane and cytoplasm spilt away from the cell and cytoplasm split away from the cell and cytoplasm split away from the cell and gaps appear between the cell and cell membrane

36
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hormone

chemicals released by plants that regulate their growth

37
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auxins

control the growth of plants by regulating cell division and elongation in plant cells

38
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tropism

a plant growth response to a stimulus, it can be positive (towards) or negative (away from)

39
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phototropism

a plant growth response towards or away from light

40
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gravitropism

a plant growth response towards or opposite the direction of gravity

41
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positive tropism

growth towards a stimulus

42
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negative tropism

growth away from a gravity

43
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What are the properties of auxins?

  • made in the meristem in the growing tips of steams and roots

  • diffuse from this tissue to other cells, regulating cell division and elongation (also they stimulate or inhibit elongation in non-meristem tissue

  • shoots (stimulated by auxins and so WILL elongate) and roots (inhibited by auxins and so will NOT elongate) response differently to auxins

44
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What are the two types of reproduction?

sexual and asexual

45
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What is another another name for sex cells?

Gametes

46
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How many chromosomes does egg and sperm have?

23 chromosomes

47
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What is an allele?

Alternative of a gene

48
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What are the properties of asexual reproduction?

  • only involves one parent

  • gives rise to genetically identical offspring known as clones

  • the cells in your body divide into two identical cells for growth to replace worn-out tissues

49
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What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?

  • many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favorable which is faster

  • more efficient because only on parent is involved in the process of reproduction

50
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What are the properties of sexual reproduction?

  • involves a sex cell from two parents

  • these two special sex cells (gametes) join together to form a zygote which goes on to develop into a new individual

51
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Which cells are in the gametes of plants in sexual reproduction?

ovules and the pollen

52
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Which cells are in the gametes of plants in sexual reproduction?

oval eggs and the sperm

53
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Why is sexual reproduction so important?

The variation it produces is a great advantage in making sure that a species survives. Variation makes it more likely that at least a few of the offspring will have the ability to survive difficult conditions.

54
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Explain ehen it’s useful to have variation on the offspring.

Variation in offspring is important for survival and adaption, it creates genetic diversity, helping species adjust to changing environments , resist diseases, and avoid extinction with variation, some individuals may develop traits that improve survival and reproduction, driving evolution and making populations more resilient.

55
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continuous variation

gradual transition between two extremes, this features are determined by a number of different genes and are affected by the environment

56
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discontinuous variation

little or no environmental impact on the features this features are determined by a single gene or chromosomes

57
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What do genes control?

The development of characteristics however they may be changed by the environment

58
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What is the blood and what does it act as?

Blood is a tissue. It acts as a transport system.

59
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What are the four main components of the blood?

  • Red blood cell - carry oxygen from the lungs to all the cells in the body

  • White blood cell - engulf pathogens, produce antibodies + antitoxins

  • Platelets - help blood to clot at wound

  • Plasma - liquid that carries everything in the blood

60
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What name is given to the shape of red blood cells?

a biconcave shape

61
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How does the red blood cell adapt to its function?

  • Due to its biconcave shape, it creates a large surface area and allows for absorbing oxygen

  • It DOESN’T have a nucleus - this allows more room to carry oxygen

  • They contain red pigment called haemoglobin

  • In the lungs, haemoglobin binds to oxygen to become oxygenhaemoglobin → reverse happens in body cells = splits up = to release oxygen to cells

<ul><li><p>Due to its biconcave shape, it creates a large surface area and allows for absorbing oxygen</p></li><li><p>It <mark data-color="purple" style="background-color: purple; color: inherit">DOESN’T</mark> have a nucleus - this allows more room to carry oxygen</p></li><li><p>They contain red pigment called <mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit">haemoglobin</mark></p></li><li><p>In the lungs, <mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit">haemoglobin</mark> binds to oxygen to become <mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit">oxygenhaemoglobin</mark> → reverse happens in body cells = splits up = to release oxygen to cells</p></li></ul><p></p>
62
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What are the properties of white blood cells?

  • Some change shape and engulf pathogen. This is called phagocytosis

  • They produce antibodies to fight microorganisms

  • They also produce antitoxins and these neutralize/counteract any toxins produced by pathogens

  • Unlike red blood cells they DO have a nucleus

<ul><li><p>Some change shape and engulf pathogen. This is called <mark data-color="yellow" style="background-color: yellow; color: inherit">phagocytosis</mark> </p></li><li><p>They produce antibodies to fight microorganisms </p></li><li><p>They also produce antitoxins and these neutralize/counteract any toxins produced by pathogens </p></li><li><p>Unlike red blood cells they DO have a nucleus </p></li></ul><p></p>
63
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What platelets role?

help blood clots

64
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What are the properties of platelets?

  • Small fragments of cells. They DON’T have a nucleus

  • They help blood clot at a wound to stop blood pouring out + stop pathogens getting in

  • Lack of platelets can cause excessive bleeding and bruising

65
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Describe plasma

Pale, straw-coloured liquid

66
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What do plasma’s cells carry?

RBCs, WBCs, platelets, nutrients in amino acids + glucose, CO2, wea, hormones, proteins, antibodies & antitoxins

67
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How does the immune system response to disease using white blood cells?

by releasing chemicals that break the organisms down and destroy it

68
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What is the function of lymphocytes (white blood cell)?

produce antibodies to destroy microorganisms

69
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What is the function of phagocytes (white blood cell)?

digest and destroy bacteria and other microorganisms that have infected our bodies

70
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How does muscle tissue allow the heart to do its job?

by keeping the heart pumping and blood circulating around the body

71
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What happens when blood stops flowing in one or more of these arteries?

When blood stops flowing, it can cause a heart attack

72
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Explain the thickness of muscle tissue of the muscle is not the same in all parts of the heart.

it depends on the amount of myocardium present

73
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myocardium

the muscular tissue of the heart

74
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What do heart valves do?

prevent backflow of blood

75
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How do heart valves work?

The heart muscles contracts and relaxes, causing values to open and close, allowing blood to flow into the ventricles and atria at different times

76
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What structures hold the flaps of the heart valves in position?

chordae tendineae

77
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chordae tendineae

strong, fibrous connections between the valve leaflets and papillary muscles

78
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What forms the circulatory system?

The heart, blood vessels and the blood

79
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What are the different types of blood vessels?

  • Artery: carries blood away from the heart

  • Vein: carry blood towards the heart

  • Capillaries: carry blood to all cells in the body

80
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What are the properties of each blood vessels?

  • Arteries: thick muscular wall, small lumen and elastic fibres

  • Vein: elastic fibres, very large lumen and this muscular wall (veins have an extra structure called valves)

  • Capillaries: wall is one cell thick, very small lumen, has a nucleus, they are small and narrow

81
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What is the direction of the blood flow?

Arteries → Capillaries → Veins

82
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What do capillaries form?

a large network of small blood vessels linking the arteries and veins

83
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What do arteries blood contain?

contains useful substances (oxygen and glucose)

84
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What do veins blood contain?

contains waste (carbon dixode) that is carried away and removed

85
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rate

How an amount changes over time

86
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What is the formula for the rate of blood flow?

Rate of blood flow = Volume of blood / Time taken

87
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What are the units for the rate of blood flow’s formula?

  • Rate: ml/sec

  • Volume of blood: cm3, ml, l, etc.

  • Time taken: sec, mins, hours, etc.

    • Per second: s-1

88
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haemoglobin

an iron-contaning protein

89
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What is the function of haemoglobin?

associates (combines) with oxygen to form oxyhaeoglobin when there is a high concentration of oxygen in the surroundings

90
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What are the steps of phagocytosis?

1) detects bacterium

2) changes shape forming pseudopodia surroundings bacterium

3) encloses bacterium inside the vacuole

4) secretes digestive enzymes to break down bacterium

91
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what’s the word equation of photosynthesis?

carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

92
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what’s the chemical equation for photosynthesis?

6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

93
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what are the steps for a leaf for starch?

1) Gather materials: leaf, iodine solution, a test tube, a Bunsen burner

2) Prepare leaf: Boil leaf in water for a few minutes to denature the chlorophyll which gives a blue-black color of starch is present

94
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turgid

when cell swells up and the cytoplasm pushes agaisnt the cell wall in pure water

95
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flaccid

when the cell contents lose water by osmosis and the cells shrink in a concentrated solution

96
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plasmolysis

when the cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall completely in a highly concentrated solution

97
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cuticle

a wavy layer that helps to prevent water loss

98
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epidermis

the outermost layer of cells (both on upper + lower surfaces of the leaf)

99
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mesophyll

the middle where photosynthesis takes place

  • divided into 2 types:

    • palisade: cells packed tightly together (contains lots of chloroplasts)

    • spongy: loosely arranged cells with air spaces between them, allowing for gas exchange

100
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vascular bundles

transports water, minerals and sugar throughout the leaf

  • 2 types of bundles

    • xylem: transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves

    • phloem: transports sugars produced by photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plants