Mussolini Final

1923

Gained support of the Church

• Mussolini offered help for the struggling Catholic bank and said that he would make religious education compulsory in schools and would ban contraception.

• Mandatory Religious Education, Banning Contraception, Action Against the Popolari(independent Catholic political party).Financial and Social Concessions, Symbolic Gestures

1923

Increased parliamentary strength

• Persuaded the Nationalists to merge with the Fascist Party

1923

Won the support of big business

• Mussolini promised the Confindustria that tax evasion would not be pursued and price and rent controls would be abolished

1923

The Acerbo Law July

• Mussolini proposed that the party that won the most votes in an election should be given two thirds of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. When the Acerbo Law was debated in parliament it gained a large majority of support.  Armed fascists squads had patrolled the chamber when the vote was taken.

1924

The General Election April

• The Acerbo Act came into practice in the general election of April 1924.  The fascists increase their seats to 374 due at least in part to Mussolini’s public profile.  However, there was also ballot rigging and fascist squad intimidation.

• Result: The National List won a landslide victory, securing approximately 65% of the vote. Because their share of the vote was so high, they would have won a clear majority even without the Acerbo Law's "majority bonus" mechanism, though the law certainly facilitated their supermajority and claim to popular support.

1924

The murder of Giacomo Matteotti June

• The socialist Matteotti called for the election result to be declared invalid on 30th May and on 10th June, a group of fascists kidnapped Matteotti and stabbed him to death. There were even allegations that Mussolini had been involved.  One hundred opposition MPs walked out of parliament.  Mussolini ordered the arrest of fascist suspects, but also put more Blackshirts on to the streets to quell protests over the murder.  Protests in the press and on the streets escalated, and in July Mussolini enforced press censorship and banned political meetings of opposition parties. Nevertheless, the scandal of the Matteotti affair continued and leading radical fascists called on Mussolini to take ‘dictatorial action’. On 3rd January, 1925, Mussolini made a dramatic speech in parliament and promised decisive action against his opponents. He still had the tacit support of the King and black shirts were mobilized to attack opposition groups

• triggering a political crisis known as the Aventine Secession. Mussolini used the crisis to dismantle remaining democratic institutions, declaring a de facto dictatorship in January 1925, making the 1924 election the last competitive election in Italy until 1946

1926

Power to make Law without parliament January

• Mussolini was given the right to make law without having to consult parliament. By November 1926 all opposition parties had been dissolved and in 1928 a law ended universal suffrage and the King lost the right to select a prime minister.

1929

Agreement with the Church

• Mussolini signed the Lateran Pacts with the papacy

• resolved the Roman Question by establishing Vatican City as an independent state and settling financial and religious relations. The treaty consisted of three parts: a political treaty creating Vatican City, a financial convention with an indemnity payment to the Vatican, and a concordat that outlined the relationship between the Catholic Church and the Italian state. 

1922

March on Rome

Rise to power conditions

• S

• P

• E

• W

Social divisions in the country

• The increasing anarchism in Rural Areas (rural often poorer farming) worried many Italians (especially the Monarchy and upper classes) of the possibility of a Socialist left wing (or Bolshevik) revolution.

• The Regio Esercito (Royal Army) was totally loyal to the King.

• Above all King Emmanuel III feared a Communist Revolution (as happened in Russia in 1917) or the possibility of a Civil War between the left wing revolutionaries (including socialists) and the rising Fascists.

• By 1919-1920 were the Biennio Rosso (The Red Years) was a time of large social and political chaos and conflict in Italy. Riots and strikes were common. Rural farmers were also angry. It seemed that a revolution was imminent. 

• By 1921-1922 were the Biennio Nero (The Black Years) marked by the growing power and violence of the fascists party. Burning down the headquarters of the Avanti Newspaper. Burning down homes of prominent politicians, catholic leaders, and socialists. The ‘ras’ (the local fascist leaders) began wielding great power

Weakness of a political system

• Real democracy came to Italy in 1912 (then only for men over 30 years of age). This meant, as a Liberal state, that people could go on strike without being punished by the state. And go on strike en masse, they did.

• The King, Vittorio Emanuele III was the Head of State, but Italy parliamentary government was chaotic and instable. No party was strong enough to win power and yet post war problems demanded action.

• Above all King Emmanuel III feared a Communist Revolution (as happened in Russia in 1917) or the possibility of a Civil War between the left wing revolutionaries (including socialists) and the rising Fascists.

• By 1919-1920 were the Biennio Rosso (The Red Years) was a time of large social and political chaos and conflict in Italy. Riots and strikes were common. Rural farmers were also angry. It seemed that a revolution was imminent. 

• By 1921-1922 were the Biennio Nero (The Black Years) marked by the growing power and violence of the fascists party. Burning down the headquarters of the Avanti Newspaper. Burning down homes of prominent politicians, catholic leaders, and socialists. The ‘ras’ (the local fascist leaders) began wielding great power

Economic Factors

• The post war problems Italy had were very much related to unemployment and the increase of living cost. With the War, the people had been encouraged by the leaders to expect greatness, but in 1919 they were “hungry and humiliated”.

• The war had also been very expensive and had completely disrupted the Italian economy.

• The population was also increasing rapidly, which along with the two and a half million men who came out of the armed forces (who were now unemployed) made the matter of poverty worse as unemployment and poverty rates where really high and increasing. 

• This caused the price of food to rise and violent armed strikes to occur frequently.

• By the end of 1920 the Lira (Italian currency) was only ⅙ of the 1913 value

Impact of war

• Estimates range from 680 000 to 709 000 dead or missing due the war

• 950,000 to 1,050,000 wounded, 463,000 of whom reported permanent disabilities

• 580,000 to 600,000 prisoners returning home

• 2,500,000 sick Italians due to war, disease, and food shortages

• The number of invalidity pensions paid was 675,000, 14,114 of which were for serious illnesses (9,040 for tuberculosis, 2,632 for insanity, 1,466 for blindness, 619 for injuries to the nervous system, and 327 for multiple amputations)

• Deducting the number of those maimed and disabled by wounds, one finds 212,000 among the sick and prisoners of war who had a permanent disability.

• Given much less from Treaty fo Versailles than promised in treaty of London

• Casualties of the war were high as over half of million were killed while much of the Italian population was seriously affected.

• The situation in Italy had reached so tense that a common saying among the Italians in 1919 was “in the next war we had better be defeated, if this is what it means to be one of the victorious powers”.

Methods to Establish Power

• F

• L

• I

• P

• P

Use of Force

• Mussolini used the Fascist squads, the Blackshirts as a form of paramilitary group to intimidate opposition, and enforce violence. 

• Many original members were ex-military soldiers who after WWI felt underappreciated, frustrated, angry and eager to seek out ‘justice’ on their terms

• Swore an oath to their leader, El Duce- Mussolini

• Black Shirt squads were used for intimidating and beating up or even killing political opposition (socialists, and communists), unionists, political leaders, leaders in the church. They would often start fights or be sent to go beat people up.

• Often financed by landowners or industrialists, used systematic violence to destroy these organizations. 

• Thousands of people were beaten, driven out of town, or even killed. *bludgeoning, castor oil 

• Hundreds of union offices, employment centres, and party newspapers were looted or burnt down. 

• In October 1920, after the election of a left administration in Bologna, Fascists invaded the council chamber, causing mayhem and nine deaths. The council was suspended by the government. 

• Later, Socialist and Catholic deputies were run out of parliament or had their houses destroyed.

Role of the leader

• He was a charismatic orator 

• He was pragmatic and flexible politically *debatable

• Mussolini positioned himself as the pivotal and coherent leader of the divided fascist party, and the only figure that might lead the party into parliament and political power. 

• During 1920 there could have been some challengers from smaller fascist rural factions, but as Mussolini was the original founder, he continued to dominate as leader.

• Mussolini appealed to the masses by promoting nationalism with some socialist dynamics. 

• Mussolini and fascism appealed to the wealthier and middle class farmers and industrialists

• He also managed to appeal to the elites as a strong man willing to take on the left (communists) and control his own party bosses, the ras.For many Italy was beginning to look like economic, social, and political chaos that no one could reign

Ideology

• By the late 1919-1921 the Fascists had become a major political force… gaining support of ...

  • Landowners

  • Industrialists

  • Urban Middle Class (students, shopkeepers)

  • Anti-Communists, Anti-Socialists

  • In May 1921, when Prime Minister Giolitti called new elections, 35 Fascists were elected to parliament as part of a government bloc of 275 deputies. 

  • In October 1921 Mussolini consolidated and united all the Fascist blocs, and in November he formed his movement into a proper political party, the National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista; PNF).

Persuasion/ coercion

Propaganda

• Visual Fashion: By 1920s Mussolini was establishing a very clear visual image, he was often in well dressed suits and military garb. The Blackshirts had a clear intimidating uniform. 

• Newspapers: In 1912 Mussolini became editor of the socialist newspaper, Avanti! He demonstrated his capabilities as a powerful and radical writer. Mussolini resigned from Avanti! in 1914, when he became pro-war and set up a new newspaper Il Popolo d’Italia that promoted Italian intervention in the First World War. He was expelled from the socialist party.  He understood the ‘popular’ mood and was open to shift his stance on issues. Returned as editor of Il Popolo. In editorials he claimed Italy needed a ‘dictator’ to effectively direct the war.  Il Popolo became the focal point of the fascist movement. This allowed him to spread his message. 

• Cult of El Duce: We begin to see the cult of personality emerge, passionate speaker, powerful aggressive, macho, military might. But more of this is focused once power is assumed.

Facism

• Nationalism

• Violence, Aggression, Military, Wwar

• Dictatorship, Single Party State and Single Leader

• Anti-Communism

• Paramilitary - Black Shirt used to inflict violence and fear to keep leadership

• Accept no dissent or opposition

Consolidation and Maintinance of Power (Mussolini)

FFLLOPP

Force

Foreign policy

Laws

Leadership

Opposition’s treatment

Propaganda

Personality cult

Personality Cult

Family man (note number of children)

Sea captain/observant

Agricultural labourer/popular/well built

Snappy dresser on holiday – again binoculars

Reader/current affairs/intellectual

Skiing/Swimming – lover of outdoor sports/active/fit and healthy

Musical/cultured

Competent horseman/leader/powerful

Lion cub as a pet (called ‘Ras’ after the name for local fascist squads)

Pilot

Opposition to Mussolini

Other fascists/Ras

The Vatican (Catholic Church leadership)

“The Left”: Communists, Socialists, Anti-fascists

Laws

Fascist Grand Council – Dec 1922

Acerbo Law – July 1923

Palazzo Vidoni Pact, October 1925

The Leggi Fascistissime (fascist legislation) December 1925

The New Syndical Law (Rocco Law), April 1926

The Press Law 1926

The Charter of Labour, April 1927

Acerbo Law

Stipulated that the party or alliance of parties that gained more than a quarter of the vote would receive two-thirds of the seats.

how did Mussolini pass the Acerbo Law?

Liberal-conservatives – such as Giolitti , never liked proportional representation and blamed it for the political instability after WW1.

Socialists – Opposed the reform but were intimidated by threats of Fascist violence and the more vague threat that Fascism would use violence to stay in power.

Fascist Grand Council – Dec 1922

This was declared to be the supreme decision-making body within the Fascist Party. It could discuss proposals for government action, but Mussolini insisted on sole power over appointments to his council. In effect, he was attempting to establish total control over Fascist policy-making.

The Leggi Fascistissime (fascist legislation) December 1925

provided Mussolini with a new title as head of government rather than prime minister. It banned opposition parties and free trade unions and established tighter censorship of the press. Elected mayors were replaced by podestas who were (appointed) powerful local officials.

Palazzo Vidoni Pact, October 1925

brought trade unions under fascist control and strengthened the position of employers.

The New Syndical Law (Rocco Law), April 1926

made strikes illegal and laid the foundations for the corporate state.

The Press Law 1926

suppressed the remaining independent newspapers and tightened up press censorship.

The Charter of Labour, April 1927

extended the Rocco Law by forcing the fascist trade unions and employers to enter into collective binding contracts.

Rise to power

SPEW

social divisions in the country S

weakness of a political system P

economic factors E

impact of war W

economics factors

The post war problems Italy had were very much related to unemployment and the increase of living cost. With the War, the people had been encouraged by the leaders to expect greatness, but in 1919 they were “hungry and humiliated”.

This caused the price of food to rise and violent armed strikes to occur frequently.

By the end of 1920 the Lira (Italian currency) was only ⅙ of the 1913 value

Social division in the country

• Real democracy came to Italy in 1912 (then only for men over 30 years of age). This meant, as a Liberal state, that people could go on strike without being punished by the state. And go on strike en masse, they did.

• Industrial workers went on massive strikes, inspired by the Russian Revolution, demanding better wages and working conditions.

  Peasants in the south and countryside seized land from landlords.

  The middle and upper classes feared a socialist revolution.

• The increasing anarchism in Rural Areas (rural often poorer farming) worried many Italians (especially the Monarchy and upper classes) of the possibility of a Socialist left wing (or Bolshevik) revolution.

• Above all King Emmanuel III feared a Communist Revolution (as happened in Russia in 1917) or the possibility of a Civil War between the left wing revolutionaries (including socialists) and the rising Fascists.

• By 1919-1920 were the Biennio Rosso (The Red Years) was a time of large social and political chaos and conflict in Italy. Riots and strikes were common. Rural farmers were also angry. It seemed that a revolution was imminent.

• By 1921-1922 were the Biennio Nero (The Black Years) marked by the growing power and violence of the fascists party. Burning down the headquarters of the Avanti Newspaper. Burning down homes of prominent politicians, catholic leaders, and socialists. The ‘ras’ (the local fascist leaders) began wielding great power

impact of war

• Estimates range from 680 000 to 709 000 dead or missing due the war 950,000 to 1,050,000 wounded, 463,000 of whom reported permanent disabilities 580,000 to 600,000 prisoners returning home

• 2,500,000 sick Italians due to war, disease, and food shortages

• The number of invalidity pensions paid was 675,000, 14,114 of which were for serious illnesses (9,040 for tuberculosis, 2,632 for insanity, 1,466 for blindness, 619 for injuries to the nervous system, and 327 for multiple amputations)

• Deducting the number of those maimed and disabled by wounds, one finds 212,000 among the sick and prisoners of war who had a permanent disability.

• Did not gain what they were promised from the Treaty of London in the Treaty of Versailles

• Estimates range from 680 000 to 709 000 dead or missing due the was 950,000 to 1,050,000 wounded, 463,000 of whom reported permanent disabilities 580,000 to 600,000 prisoners returning home 2,500,000 sick Italians due to war, disease, and food shortages

• The number of invalidity pensions paid was 675,000, 14,114 of which were for serious illnesses (9,040 for tuberculosis, 2,632 for insanity, 1,466 for blindness, 619 for injuries to the nervous system, and 327 for multiple amputations)

• Deducting the number of those maimed and disabled by wounds, one finds 212,000 among the sick and prisoners of war who had a permanent disability.

weakness of political system

• The Regio Esercito (Royal Army) was totally loyal to the King.

• The King, Vittorio Emanuele III was the Head of State, but Italy parliamentary government was chaotic and instable. No party was strong enough to win power and yet post war problems demanded action.

1. Weak and unstable parliamentary system

   1. Postwar Italy had a fragile liberal democracy. Governments changed frequently—between 1919 and 1922, five different coalitions held power.

   2. No single party could command a stable majority due to:

      1. The introduction of proportional representation in 1919, which fragmented the Chamber of Deputies.

      2. Growing polarization between the socialists on the left and nationalists on the right, making cooperation impossible.

      3. This instability made the government look indecisive and incapable of solving economic or social crises, helping Mussolini portray Fascism as a strong, decisive alternative.

2. Failure to handle social and economic unrest

   1. The liberal governments failed to deal with strikes, protests, and postwar discontent. During the Biennio Rosso (Red Years, 1919–1920), mass strikes and factory occupations terrified the middle and upper classes.

   2. Instead of restoring order, the state hesitated to act, showing weakness.

      1. Mussolini’s Fascist squads (Blackshirts) then stepped in, using violence against left-wing groups and winning the support of industrialists, landowners, and conservatives who saw the Fascists as protectors.

3. Loss of faith among the public

   1. Ordinary Italians felt the liberal government had betrayed wartime sacrifices—Italy’s promised territorial gains were only partly fulfilled (the “mutilated victory”).

   2. Veterans and nationalists were angry, while workers and peasants were disappointed by unkept promises of reform. The result was widespread disillusionment, which Mussolini exploited through nationalist rhetoric and promises of unity.

4. Complicity and miscalculation of elites

   1. Political elites, including King Victor Emmanuel III, underestimated Mussolini’s intentions. They viewed him as a tool to restore order and believed they could control him.

   2. When the March on Rome occurred in October 1922, the King refused to authorize martial law and instead invited Mussolini to form a government—essentially handing him power legally.

5. Lack of organized opposition

   1. Divided and disorganized

      1. The Socialist and Communist parties refused to cooperate

      2. liberal leaders like Giolitti and Salandra prioritized political survival over defending democracy

Use of Force

• Mussolini used the Fascist squads, the Blackshirts as a form of paramilitary group to intimidate opposition, and enforce violence.

• Many original members were ex-military soldiers who after WWI felt underappreciated, frustrated, angry and eager to seek out ‘justice’ on their terms

• Swore an oath to their leader, El Duce- Mussolini

• Black Shirt squads were used for intimidating and beating up or even killing political opposition (socialists, and communists), unionists, political leaders, leaders in the church. They would often start fights or be sent to go beat people up.

• Often financed by landowners or industrialists, used systematic violence to destroy these organizations.

• Thousands of people were beaten, driven out of town, or even killed. *bludgeoning, castor oil

• Hundreds of union offices, employment centres, and party newspapers were looted or burnt down.

• In October 1920, after the election of a left administration in Bologna, Fascists invaded the council chamber, causing mayhem and nine deaths. The government suspended the council.

• Later, Socialist and Catholic deputies were run out of parliament or had their houses destroyed.

• Ceka used to murder Matteoti

• OVRA secrete police

Foreign Policy and Success

1935 - Invasion of Abyssinia

1936 - Rome-Berlin Axis Agreement

1936-38 - Spanish Civil War

1939 - Invasion of Albania

1939 - Pact of Steel

1940 - Entry into WWII

Propaganda

• Visual Fashion: By 1920s Mussolini was establishing a very clear visual image, he was often in well dressed suits and military garb. The Blackshirts had a clear intimidating uniform.

• Newspapers: In 1912 Mussolini became editor of the socialist newspaper, Avanti! He demonstrated his capabilities as a powerful and radical writer. Mussolini resigned from Avanti! in 1914, when he became pro-war and set up a new newspaper Il Popolo d’Italia that promoted Italian intervention in the First World War. He was expelled from the socialist party. He understood the ‘popular’ mood and was open to shift his stance on issues. Returned as editor of Il Popolo. In editorials he claimed Italy needed a ‘dictator’ to effectively direct the war. Il Popolo became the focal point of the fascist movement. This allowed him to spread his message.

• Cult of El Duce: We begin to see the cult of personality emerge, passionate speaker, powerful aggressive, macho, military might. But more of this is focused once power is assumed.

• Created youth academies

Historical Perspective Persuasion vs Coercion (Dennis Mack Smith)

Mussolini gained support as a charismatic leader

Historical Perspective Persuasion vs Coercion (Nicholas Burgess Farrell)

Facism already had mass support by 1922

Historical Perspective Persuasion vs Coercion (Alexander De Grand)

anti socialist violence was more important than growht of support for the movement

Historical Perspective Persuasion vs Coercion (Benedetto Croce)

facists fed on fear caused by post war socio economic crisis and communist revolution threat

Economic Policies

• The battle for grain

• The battle for the lira

• The battle for land

• Transport Policies

the battle for grain

was needed because Italy was heavily dependent on foreign imports for wheat, Mussolini considered it a national weakness, especially, during the war. It was implemented to achieve autarky (self-sufficient economy) in food production.

• Farmers benefited because the government gave grants to farmers to buy tractors and fertilizers and offered them advice on modern farming methods.

• The fascist party benefitted because they had a wider presence in more rural areas of Italy, increasing their control

• Farmers were impacted negatively because Mussolini's regime funded the draining and irrigation of potential farmland

• Italy had to import olive oil, and export of fruit and wine and cattle and sheep all dropped.

the battle for the Lira

The aims were to increase the value of the Lira in order to lower import costs of coal and iron. Also to increase the self image of Italy so that it would be on par with other European nations.

• Benefited the industrialists as it meant that importing raw materials was cheaper

• Benefited the domestic economy as it promoted purchasing locally.

• Made consumer goods more expensive as Mussolini implemented high amounts of tariffs thus leading to a recession.

• Harmed the exporting industries in Italy as the cost of italian goods increased relative to other countres

the battle for land

A further attempt to increase farmland and reduce rural unemployment

Aimed to drain marshlands to increase agricultural production

• Farmers who needed more land

• Italians who found jobs

• Fascists & Mussolini who could spread propaganda

• Funding for the program was significantly cut later for Mussolini foreign military adventures in Abyssinia and others

• The goal of establishing a new class of ‘smallholder peasants’ was also not achieved

• Along with the ‘battle for grain’ it resulted in an overproduction of wheat while other crops like fruit and vegetables were underproduced

Italian Youth

Mussolini looked to use education as a way to indoctrinate and gain more power

• Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB)

• In 1937 the ONB merged with the young fascists to form the Gioventu Italiana del Littiori (GIL)

• Gentile reforms 1923

• ‘Fascistisation’ – education and indoctrination

• The use of the Opera Nazionale Balilla helped further propaganda into the youth negative.

• Because of the entrance exams (put in place by Giovanni Gentile) that were required for secondary education, many children left school at the age of 11. And the number of children who reached university also significantly fell

• The impact of youth groups was not as effective as a large majority of school children avoided this. Some 40% of 4–18 year olds managed to avoid membership too.

• The speed with which support for fascism declined after Mussolini’s downfall indicates that, for all the propaganda, the targeting of young people for fascist converts was ultimately yet another policy failure.

• Indoctrination was much more less effective in secondary school than in primary although all textbooks were carefully reviewed and then either kept or replaced by government books, that emphasized the role of Mussolini and Fascism

Women

• Had traditional views on women, wanted them to stay at home and have children - as many as possible since there is a decline in birth rates. Since women were expected to act traditionally there were also limited employment opporunities for them.

• Battle of the Births (1927)

• Taxation policy

• ‘Opera Nazionale per la Maternità ed Infanzia’ aka ONMI (1925)

• Some families gained loans and tax brakes which had short term positive effect for families with many children

• Bachelor tax as a part of the Battle of Birth penalized some men, and the church gained allies in family policy

Propaganda in Film

LUCE created to oversee all cinematic operations in Italy

Organized by Luigi Freddi

Black films. championed fascist ideology and cause

not as successful as russian and german propaganda

Balilla

Italian Fascist Youth organization

Day of the Wedding Rings

Seek more power and act as a grand display to the world of the trust of the people

1938

Racial Laws imposed antisemetic discrimination by banning jewfrom many professions

Manifesto of Race

1938

1923

Gentile reform on education- increase state over cite, force tests to enter middle school