Biology: Process of Science, Evolution, and Metric Measurements Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards generated from lecture notes covering evolutionary history, evidence for common descent, SI metric units, and the scientific method.

Carolus Linnaeus

The Swedish scientist who classified and described different kinds of organisms and developed the modern biological classification system.

Gradualism

The geological concept proposed by James Hutton stating that small physical changes occur over time and accumulate into major geological changes.

Uniformitarianism

The principle supported by Charles Lyell asserting that the rates and processes of geological change remain constant throughout Earth's history.

Catastrophism

The theory proposed by Georges Cuvier stating that past local catastrophes caused extinctions, after which species from surrounding areas repopulated the region.

Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics

The disproved hypothesis by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck stating that traits developed through use or disuse during an organism's lifetime are passed on to its offspring.

Biogeography

The branch of biology studying the geographic distributions of living organisms and fossil species across the planet.

Alfred Russel Wallace

A British naturalist studying in Indonesia who independently developed the theory of evolution by natural selection and co-presented it with Darwin in 1858.

Geometric Ratio of Increase

The concept derived from Thomas Malthus describing the exponential overproduction potential of a species if all born offspring were to survive and reproduce.

Differential Reproductive Success

The condition in which individuals with favorable traits acquire more resources and produce a higher number of viable offspring relative to other population members.

Fitness

The reproductive success of an individual relative to other members of a population, measured by the contribution of viable offspring to the next generation.

Adaptation

Any evolved trait or feature that enhances an organism's capability to survive and reproduce within a specific environment.

Convergent Evolution

The independent evolution of similar physical or functional features in distantly related organisms due to similar environmental selection pressures.

Natural Selection

The evolutionary process wherein individuals possessing advantageous heritable traits experience higher survival and reproductive rates, driving population adaptation.

Artificial Selection

The deliberate selective breeding of specific domestic plants or animals by humans to enhance desirable inherited traits.

Transitional Fossil

A fossilized organism displaying intermediate structural features between an ancestral species and its later derived descendant groups.

Homologous Structures

Anatomical traits in different organisms that share a structural similarity due to common ancestry, regardless of their current functional differences.

Analogous Structures

Structures in different species that serve similar functions but lack a shared evolutionary origin or common anatomical blueprint.

Vestigial Structures

Anatomical features that are fully developed in one group of organisms but reduced or obsolete in related species due to evolutionary changes.

Cytochrome c

A conserved mitochondrial protein in the electron transport chain used as a biochemical marker to measure evolutionary relatedness across species.

Hox Genes

A master set of regulatory genes that control embryonic development and determine the spatial body plan layout across all animal groups.

International System of Units (SI)

The universally adopted metric measurement system built upon standardized base units and base-10 powers.

Giga-

A metric prefix denoting a power factor of $10^9$ ($1,000,000,000$), represented by the symbol $\text{G}$.

Mega-

A metric prefix denoting a power factor of $10^6$ ($1,000,000$), represented by the symbol $\text{M}$.

Kilo-

A metric prefix denoting a power factor of $10^3$ ($1,000$), represented by the symbol $\text{k}$.

Milli-

A metric prefix denoting a power factor of $10^{-3}$ ($0.001$), represented by the symbol $\text{m}$.

Micro-

A metric prefix denoting a power factor of $10^{-6}$ ($0.000001$), represented by the Greek symbol $\mu$.

Nano-

A metric prefix denoting a power factor of $10^{-9}$ ($0.000000001$), represented by the symbol $\text{n}$.

Scientific Method

A standardized sequence of scientific steps involving observation, hypothesis development, prediction, experimental testing, data collection, and conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning

A logical process in which specific empirical observations or data trends are combined to form a general explanation or testable hypothesis.

Deductive Reasoning

A logical process applying general principles to construct specific expected outcomes using 'if…then' statements.

Experimental Variable

The specific factor intentionally altered or manipulated by a researcher during an experiment, also known as the independent variable.

Responding Variable

The measured outcome or resulting change produced by manipulating the experimental variable, also known as the dependent variable.

Control Group

The experimental setup held under identical baseline conditions without exposure to the experimental variable for comparative analysis.

Test Group

The subject group in an experiment that is directly subjected to the experimental variable or treatment being evaluated.

Model Organism

A species chosen for experimental study to model biological mechanisms applicable to other living organisms under strictly controlled settings.

Standard Deviation

A statistical calculation indicating how spread out data measurements are relative to the mean, reflecting the level of uncertainty in experimental data.

Standard Error

A statistical measure estimating the variability and uncertainty associated with a sample mean, frequently illustrated with error bars on data graphs.

Statistical Significance

A statistical determination confirming that an observed experimental outcome or difference is unlikely to be the product of random chance.

p-Value

The calculated probability that an experimental result occurred purely by chance, where values of $p < 0.05$ denote statistical significance.

Scientific Theory

A comprehensive explanatory framework unifying multiple well-supported hypotheses and confirmed by extensive empirical evidence.

Scientific Principle

A major scientific theory that has received overwhelming acceptance throughout the scientific community without valid refutations.

Cell Theory

The foundational theory in biology stating that all living things consist of cells and that existing cells originate solely from preexisting cells.

Homeostasis Theory

The core theory asserting that cells and living organisms actively maintain a stable, protective internal balance regardless of external variations.