PSYCHOLOGY QUIZ 2 COMBINED

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

• A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue

• Scans show brain anatomy.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

A brain-imaging technique that reveals activity in various parts of the brain, based on patterns of blood flow, oxygen use, and glucose consumption.

Neuron

A nerve cell

Sensory system

Gathers sensory information

Interneuron system

Carries information between neutrons in the brain and spinal cord

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information.

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Terminal buttons

Ends of axons that secrete neurotransmitters

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. Occurs when excitatory signals outweigh the number of inhibitory signals

all-or-none principle

The principle that when a neuron fires, it fires with the same potency each time; a neuron either fires or not—it cannot partially fire, although the frequency of firing can vary.

Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.

lock and key mechanism

Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the neuron

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Function: learning, anxiety regulation

Drugs: Valium, Ativan

Dopamine

• Mood

• Voluntary movement

• Reinforcement

  • Too much (Frontal lobes)- Schizophrenia

  • Too little (Motor Areas)- Parkinson’s

Serotonin

Function: mood regulation. Drugs: MDMA, LSD, Monamine Oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), SSRIs

Norepinephrine

Function: attention, arousal. Drugs: adderall

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the nervous system to change its activity in response to intrinsic or extrinsic stimuli by reorganizing its structure, functions, or connections after injuries

afferent neurons

Nerve cells that carry impulses towards the central nervous system (CNS) from the PNS

efferent neurons

Nerve cells that conduct impulses away from the central nervous system to the PNS

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Hindbrain

Function and Location: regulates basic life functions, closest to the spinal cord

reticular formation

regulates sleep, wakefulness, and levels of arousal. Main source of serotonin, which is important for mood and activity levels

Pons

Send signals to and from the forebrain and cerebellum. Important for sleep, breathing, swallowing, eye movements, and facial sensation and expression

Medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Cerebellum

A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills.

substantia nigra (midbrain)

The nucleus from which dopamine neurons send their axons to the striatum(forebrain). Involved in movement control (damaged in Parkinson's disease).

Thalamus (forebrain)

sensory relay station

Hypothalamus (forebrain)

Important for motivation, basic drives, and the control of the endocrine system

pituitary gland

Regulates hormones

limbic system

Involved in the regulation of motivation, emotions, and learning and memory

• Amygdala: Emotion/fear-

• Hippocampus: Memory

Amydala

This structure is located on the ends of the hippocampus and is related to the emotions of fear and anger.

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

nucleus accumbens

important for experiencing reward and motivating behaviour and addiction

Structure of the Cerebrum

• Is composed of 2 cerebral hemispheres: Left and Right

  • Like mirror images of each other

  • Comprised of 4 lobes:

    • Frontal lobe

    • Temporal lobe

    • Occipital lobe

    • Parietal lobe

frontal lobe

associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving. Right side controls left side of body

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and languages

occipital lobe

visual processing

sensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Motor cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

association cortex

regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate simpler functions to perform more complex functions

Parallel processing

• Brain's ability to process multiple pieces of information or tasks simultaneously rather than one at a time

• EX.

  • While watching a movie your brain is processing the images and scenes on the screen, recognizing shapes, colors, and movements

corpus callosum

Connects the two brain hemispheres. Dense bundles of neural fibres (axons) that allow communication of information from one side of the brain to the other

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

DTI (diffusion tensor imaging)

An imaging method that uses a modified MRI scanner to reveal bundles of myelinated axons in the living human brain

astroglial cells

Regulate brain blood flow, as needed

4 main types of ions that contribute to the resting potential

1. Positive sodium

2. Positive potassium

3. Negative chloride

4. Negative proteins (anions)

Myelin

fatty white substance that surrounds the axon of some nerve cells, forming an electrically insulating layer. Formed from glial

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

parasympathetic nervous system

• The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

• Active during restful times

• Often used in digestion (Urination, etc)

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

• Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Activated under conditions of stress.

  • Sympathetic division arouses

  • Parasympathetic division calms

peripheral nervous system

Made up of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic system

sympathetic nervous system

Part of autonomic nervous system that is activated under stress.

endocrine system

The system that controls levels of hormones throughout the body

Broca's area

A brain region located in the frontal lobe that is important for speech production

reticular formation

A complex neural network extending from the hindbrain into the midbrain that plays a central role in regulating consciousness and arousal

The basal ganglia

a group of structures linked to the thalamus in the base of the brain and involved in coordination of movement.

Psychoanalytic theory

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

Behaviorism

• All behaviors are acquired through conditioning

  • Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment

• Behaviorists believe that our actions are shaped by environmental stimuli

information processing

humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously)

cognitive neuroscience

study of the physical changes in the brain and nervous system during thinking

Conscious

personal awareness of an ongoing mental processes, behaviours & environmental events

Unconscious

• Hypothesized repositions of thoughts, feelings, & sensations outside human awareness

• Some theories to have a strong bearing on human behaviour

What is neuroscience?

the study of the brain & the nervous system

Neurons

- Specialized cells that carry messages throughout the nervous system

- Electrochemical exchange-both electrical and chemical

- Differ in shape and size and function

What are the parts of a neuron?

• Cell body

• Dendrites

• Axon

• Myelin sheath

• Nodes of ranvier

• Terminal buttons

What is a glial cell?

• Make up the nervous system

• Are like glue that hold neurons together

What is a synapse?

junction between two neurons

What is the synaptic cleft?

gap between the terminal button of one neuron

What are neurotransmitters?

chemical messengers - transmit information between neurons

What are axons?

a long thin fibre that transmits signals way from the soma to other neurons or to muscles or glans

What are myelin sheaths?

axon coverings that help speed up transmission signals that move along axon

What is the resting potential of a neuron?

-70 millivolts, negative charge when the cell is inactive

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Black window

the venom causes you to produce too much acetylcholine so you suffocate

Curare

stops the production of acetylcholine from you body so you die

Monoamines 3 neurotransmitters

1. Dopamine

2. Norepinephrine

3. Serotonin

Norepinephrine

• Affects eating habits, alertness, and wakefulness, leads into depression

  • Predominant in fear/angry

Serotonin

play roles in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming

Oversupply of _______ produce manic states while undersupply is thought to produce depression

Epinephrine

Causes surges of energy, predominant energy

Endorphins

Relieve pain and produce feelings of pleasure and well-being;

• Runner's high

• Resemble opilate drugs

Anti-depressants/Anxiety

(1) MAO inhibiters - monoamine oxidase inhibitors

(2) SSRIs - selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

Imprinting

• Process in which young animals form strong and rapid attachments to the first moving object they see, typically their parent or caregiver

• Konrad Lorenz duckling experiment

UCS- Unconditioned stimulus

• Stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate unconditioned response (UCR) without prior learning:

  • Sour lemon candy to a kid

UCR-Unconditioned Response

• An automatic response to a stimulus

• Pucker up the lips

CS- Conditioned Stimulus

• Learned

• “Ding”-->  Here's a lemon, suck on it

Stimulus Generalization

When you react in the same way to a similar but different stimulus than your originally conditioned to.

Ex. Applied in Ads, prejudices, and phobias

Phobias

• Irrational fear attached to specific situation or stimulus

• Need to change the association to fix it

Contingency

• The sense that what is happening is connected to what has just happened and what is about to happen

• Dependency or relationship between two events or variables

(IF, THEN, if=behavior, then=consequence)

Skinner Box

• A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled

• Operant Conditioning

Positive Reinforcement

• Anything that follows a behavior and increases the probability that the behavior will occur again; something that's desired gets added

• EX.

  • A child cleans their room (behavior), and in return, they receive a sticker (positive stimulus)

Punishment

Anything that follows a behavior and decreases the probability that the behavior will occur again.

Extinction

Withholding reinforcement, eventually causes the behavior to weaken and stop.

Negative Reinforcement

Behaviour is strengthened or increased by the removal or avoidance of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus immediately following that behaviour.

Ex. Wearing a seatbelt to stop the annoying car alarm

Primary Reinforcement

Occurs naturally and doesn't require learning; often aids in survival of species, ex. food, water, sex...

Secondary Reinforcement

Stimuli that have become rewarding by being paired with another reinforcing stimulus; values learned