Studied by 3 people
What are the two main periods of prenatal development, and what happens in each?
Embryonic Period (First 13 weeks):
Begins after the zygote (fertilized egg) undergoes a 2-week period of rapid cell division and implants in the uterus, developing into an embryo (the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month).
Human features start to develop.
The fetus is highly vulnerable to miscarriage (1 in 3 chance) and teratogens (known as “monster maker” agents, such as harmful substances like drugs, alcohol, or illness).
Fetal Period (13 weeks to delivery):
The embryo develops into a fetus (the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth).
Rapid growth occurs, and organ systems start functioning in preparation for birth.
How can prenatal development be negatively affected?
Factors such as the mother's age, poverty, drug use, diseases, and stress can negatively impact prenatal development.
What are the disorders linked to/with prenatal development?
Down Syndrome — which is the most common prenatal disorder and is caused by an extra chromosome
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome — which is like other drug induced disorders that are linked to low birth weight and cognitive delays/physical and cognitive abnormalities in the baby
Is caused by alcohol exposure during pregnancy
symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
What abilities do babies have at birth?
Babies are born with sensory equipment necessary for survival (like the ability to eat) and limited social interaction.
Why do newborns have no conscious memories of early life?
Their neural networks are not fully developed yet, preventing them from forming memories.
How do motor skills develop in infants?
Motor skills (such as sitting, standing, crawling, and walking) develop in a sequence due to maturation (refers to biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, mostly uninfluenced by experience.—meaning even if a baby is encouraged to walk early, they won't be able to until their muscles and nervous system develop enough.)
What are the disorders linked to/with newborn development?
Autism — which is a developmental disorder marked by difficulty communicating and forming relationships; it is also associated with mind blindness, meaning difficulty understanding others' thoughts and emotions.
ADHD — which is marked by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and sometimes impulsivity
What are developmental delays, and can they be fixed?
Developmental delays = a condition where a child's development in one or more areas falls significantly behind their peers of the same age
Example: Not being able to walk at 2 years old.
most developmental delays (such as language or mobility issues) can be treated if addressed early.
What is Erik Erikson’s theory on establishing attachment and basic trust?
Erikson, who was into psychosocial development, believed that infancy is about developing trust in caregivers, which is essential for healthy emotional development
When it comes to basic trust, according to Erik Erikson, it is the sense that the world is predicable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
What did Harry Harlow’s Monkey Experiment show about attachment?
showed that infants crave affection and comfort, not just basic needs like food. —-The baby monkeys preferred a soft cloth mother over a wire mother that provided milk
What is attachment and how does failure to establish early attachments affect future relationships?
Attachment is an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
failure to establish attachments can negatively shape our future relationship with friends and romantic partners.
How do biological and environment factors affect brain development in early childhood?
The nervous system is vulnerable to environmental stimuli in early childhood. During critical periods, the brain can form new neural pathways to develop new skills. Without stimulation, these pathways won’t form, leading to developmental delays.
Example: A child who is rarely spoken to may struggle with language development due to a lack of neural connections forming.
What are the four stages of Piaget’s cognitive development, and what happens in each?
Sensorimotor (0-2): Coordination of senses with motor responses (movements); develops language and object permanence (knowing an object exists even when out of sight).
Example: A baby plays peek-a-boo. Before object permanence, they think the person disappears when covered.
Preoperational (2-7): Symbolic thinking (the understanding that one thing can stand for another): pretend play, developing language and grammar, but remains egocentric (thinking only of oneself—struggles to see others' perspectives).
Example of pretend play: A child pretends a broom is a horse and "rides" it around the house.
Example: A child in the preoperational stage may believe the moon follows them because they don’t understand different perspectives
Concrete Operational (7-11): Develops logical thinking, understands time, space, and quantity. Can perform conservation tasks (understanding that changing shape doesn’t change amount).
Example: A child realizes that pouring juice into a taller glass doesn’t mean there is more juice than before
Formal Operational (11+): Abstract thinking, moral reasoning, and strategic planning emerge
Example: A teenager debates whether capitalism or socialism is better, considering different perspectives and future consequences.
What do Noam Chomsky and Benjamin Whorf believe about language development?
Noam Chomsky: Humans are born with a predisposition (natural ability) to learn language.
Example: A baby, no matter where they are born, can learn any language if exposed to it early, even without formal teaching. For instance, a child raised in Japan will naturally learn Japanese, while a child in Spain will naturally learn Spanish.
Benjamin Whorf: Language shapes how we think (linguistic determinism).
Example: The Hopi language doesn’t have verb tenses for past, present, and future like English does, which Whorf suggested might make Hopi speakers think about time differently, focusing more on cycles and events rather than fixed points in time.
What is aphasia?
Aphasia is the inability to process or produce language (the ability to speak and understand what others say), often caused by brain damage.
Example: A person with aphasia may struggle to speak but can still understand language.
What are the four parenting styles, and how do they influence child development?
Permissive: Few rules, avoids upsetting the child → Children may lack self-discipline and responsibility.
Example: A parent lets their child eat candy for dinner every night because they don’t want to say no or cause conflict
Authoritative: Balanced structure and rules → Leads to confident, responsible children (best style).
Example: A child wants to go to a party on a school night. The parent explains, "You can go, but you must be home by 9 PM so you get enough sleep for school."
Authoritarian: Strict, obedience-focused → Children may lack decision-making skills or fear mistakes.
Example: A child brings home a B on a test, and the parent punishes them harshly, saying only A’s are acceptable
Uninvolved: Neglectful, no guidance → Children may struggle with self-worth and independence.
Example: A child makes dinner for themselves every night, has no set bedtime, and receives little attention from their parents
How does Vygotsky explain childhood learning and development?
Learning happens through social interaction, where parents, teachers, and the community help guide children.
Examples:
Scaffolds (Protections to Guide Children):
A parent holds their child’s bike while they learn to balance, slowly letting go as they gain confidence.
A teacher helps a child read by sounding out words with them before letting them try alone.
Bridges (Encouragement to Gain Independence):
A parent encourages a child to order their food at a restaurant instead of doing it for them, helping them develop confidence.
A teacher allows a student to solve a math problem on their own after first demonstrating how to do it.
Community & Language in Learning (which shapes how children make sense of the world/“making meaning”):
A child growing up in a bilingual home learns to think in multiple languages, which helps them see different perspectives.
What are Erikson’s three key childhood stages, and what questions do children ask during them?
Autonomy vs. Doubt (Ages 2-3): “Is it okay to do things for myself?” → Learning independence (e.g., potty training).
Example: A toddler insists on dressing themselves even if they struggle
Initiative vs. Guilt (Ages 3-5): “Can I make friends and explore the world?” → Learning confidence in social situations.
Example: A child tries to organize a game with friends. If encouraged, they develop leadership skills. If constantly criticized, they may feel guilty for taking initiative
Industry vs. Inferiority (Ages 6-11): “How do my strengths and weaknesses compare to others?” → Learning competence in school and hobbies.
Example: A child works hard on a science project and wins a school competition, making them feel competent. If they constantly fail or are discouraged, they may feel inferior to their peers.
What is developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan.
What is habituation?
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner
Example: A baby is shown a bright red toy for the first time and stares at it with excitement. However, after a few minutes of seeing the toy repeatedly, the baby loses interest and looks away. If a new toy (like a blue one) is introduced, the baby’s attention increases again, showing they noticed the difference.
What is cognition?
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Example: When you solve a math problem or remember a friend's name, you're using your cognitive skills.
According to Piaget, How does cognition develop in adolescence and what it the relationship between schemas, assimilation, and accommodation?
A schema is a mental framework or structure that helps organize and interpret information based on previous experiences.
Example: A child has a schema for dogs: four legs, fur, barks. If they encounter a new dog breed, they use this schema to recognize it as a dog.
Adolescents actively engage with their environment to form their own understanding of the world through:
Assimilation is the process of incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without changing the schema.
Example: A child who has a schema for dogs might see a cat for the first time and call it a "dog" because they have a four-legged, furry schema for animals.
Example 2: A teen who has always believed that "all teachers are strict" meets a laid-back teacher but still assumes they will enforce tough rules.
Accommodation is the process of changing or adapting an existing schema to incorporate new information that doesn't fit.
Example: After learning that a cat is different from a dog, the child will accommodate their schema for animals to include both dogs and cats, differentiating them.
Example 2: After realizing that different teachers have different styles, the teen modifies their view and understands that "not all teachers are strict."
What is the Theory of Mind?
people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states — about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
Example: A 4-year-old child watches their friend place a toy in a box, then leaves the room, and when they come back they appear to be looking for the toy. The child remembers where the toy is, but knows that their friend doesn’t. The child predicts that their friend will look in the wrong spot.
What is stranger anxiety?
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
What is imprinting?
the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. — for instance some animals form strong attachments to the first moving object (often the mother) they see after birth. Example of that being a baby duck following their mother wherever it goes.
What are the key biological changes during adolescence?
Hormonal changes trigger the development of:
Primary sexual characteristics (the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible).
Secondary sexual characteristics (non-reproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair).
The hormonal changes = puberty — the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
Sexual maturation’s onset varies but tends to happen in girls (ex: menarche—the first menstrual period) before boys
The limbic system (emotions and impulses) matures before the frontal lobe (decision-making), which explains teenage impulsiveness.
Example: A teenager takes risky actions (like speeding) because their emotions are fully developed, but their impulse control is still maturing.
What are the three stages of Morality, according to Kohlberg?
Pre-Conventional Morality: Rules are followed to avoid punishment or gain rewards.
Example: A child doesn’t steal candy because they don’t want to be punished.
Conventional Morality: Morality is based on conforming to societal expectations and seeking approval.
Example: A teenager follows school dress codes to avoid judgment from peers.
Post-Conventional Morality: Individuals develop their own ethical principles based on justice, rights, and empathy.
Example: A person protests against an unfair law, even if it means getting arrested, because they believe it’s morally wrong.
How do gender and sexuality develop in adolescence and what does research show?
Gender is a social construct (an idea or concept created by society that is not inherently natural but is given meaning through cultural norms and expectations) in which a culture determines norms and taboos for each sex
Example: "boys should be tough" and "girls should be sweet"
Gender Dysmorphia is a rare condition where there is a mismatch between one’s gender identity and biological sex
Sexuality and gender experimentation are common in adolescence and early adulthood.
Research shows that allowing experimentation reduces anxiety and depression
What is Erikson’s Identity Theory?
Adolescence is the biopsychosocial transition (physical (hormones), thinking (values and emotions), and relationship (peer influence) changes) from childhood to adulthood (extending from puberty to independence)
Throughout adolescence we explore our identity (sense of self) and place in the world
Experimentation with interests, friends, fashion, and behaviors is common
Establishing a stable identity when young helps with a smooth transition to adulthood
Overall Example: A teenager tries different friend groups, clothing styles, or hobbies to figure out what fits their personality
What are the key biological changes in early adulthood?
Physical strength (natural physicality and virility) and reproductive ability peak in early adulthood.
Genetics, diet, and exercise play a major role in maintaining health.
Brain growth and neural plasticity decreases, making it harder to learn new skills compared to childhood
What is cognitive equilibrium and how does cognition change in early adulthood?
Cognitive Equilibrium is the balance between mental schema (the way in which you think about the world and solve problems) and environmental frameworks
Decrease in fluid intelligence (leads to poorer memorization skills and perceptual speed decline) and increase in crystallized intelligence (improves verbal abilities, spatial reasoning, and reasoning)
Example: A young adult might struggle with memorizing new facts quickly (fluid intelligence), but become better at reasoning through life experiences (crystallized intelligence).
What are the key social changes in early adulthood?
Erikson’s Intimacy vs. Isolation: People seek and have the ability to form close, loving relationships (romantic or platonic).
Life events follow a social clock (e.g., college, career, marriage, parenthood).
Example: all of one’s friends tend to get married, and have kids around the same time because of their social clock.
Relationship goals shift from passionate (lust-based) love to companionate (deep emotional connection) love.
What are the key biological changes in middle adulthood (40s-50s)?
A loss of muscle mass, a slower metabolism, and the body storing more fat making it harder to lose weight
hair loss is common
Women begin to lose the ability to reproduce due to menopause (natural stop to menstruation), a process that can last ten years
How does Erikson explain a midlife crisis and what is Generativity and Stagnation?
Erikson states that a midlife crisis is a period of self-reflection—some people feel there’s still time to change their life direction.
Divorce rates peak at nearly 50% during middle adulthood.
Generativity: Finding purpose through raising children or contributing to society.
Stagnation: Feeling a lack of purpose, leading to dissatisfaction.
What are the key biological changes in late adulthood?
Myelin (which helps fast neural communication) declines, leading to slower processing and shrinkage to memory-related brain regions
Sexual activity decreases but remains possible with good health.
Women outlive men due to healthier habits and lifestyles.
What are common cognitive disorders in late adulthood?
Parkinson’s Disease - A progressive decline in dopamine production causing stiffness and tremors
Alzheimer's Disease - A progressive degeneration of neural connections leading to severe memory loss
Dementia - common in all elderly people; a gradual decline in mental abilities
Example: An older adult with Alzheimer’s may forget their family members, while someone with dementia may struggle with daily tasks but still recognize loved ones.
How does social and emotional well-being change in late adulthood?
Erikson’s Integrity vs. Despair: Self-reflection leads to acceptance of life (integrity) or regret over past mistakes (despair).
Aging gracefully involves strong social relationships with family and friends.
Stages of Dying:
Denial – “This can’t be happening.”
Anger – “Why me?”
Bargaining – “If I recover, I’ll change my ways.”
Depression – Grief and sadness.
Acceptance – Coming to terms with mortality.
What is self-concept?
our understanding and evaluation of who we are
What is emerging adulthood?
for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.
What is social identity, and how does it influence behavior?
Social identity is the part of a person’s self-concept that comes from their membership in social groups (e.g., nationality, religion, sports teams, political affiliations). It helps shape how people view themselves and interact with others.
Example: A teenager who is part of a music fanbase (e.g., K-pop fandom) may dress a certain way and follow trends from that group.
What’s the difference between a Cross-Sectional Study and a Longitudinal Study
Cross-Sectional Study = a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.
Longitudinal Study = research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
