MMW 11: Chang midterm

Advantages of full bipedalism

*led to bigger brains because of diet change
*more sophisticated tools
*migration
*favored narrower hips
*distance
*hold more things

Australopithicus (Chronology, brain size, tool use)

2.5-4 mya
*began to develop bipedalism in response to changing "mosaic" environment
*resembled chimpanzees today
*lived in trees & on land

Homo Habilis (Chronology, brain size, tool use)

2.8-1.8 mya
*50% increase in brain size

Homo Erectus (Chronology, brain size, tool use)

1.9 mya - 140k years ago
*more sophisticated tools (Acheulean hand axes, cleavers, scrapers)
*stood upright
*cooperative work
*started migrating out of Africa

Homo Sapiens (Chronology, brain size, tool use)

*more human-like
*bipedal
*larger brains

Multi-regionalism vs. Out of Africa debate

multi: evolved different parts of the world where homo erectus migrated to

africa: homo erectus specifically evolved in east Africa and then migrated

Compromise between bipedalism and brain size

Delayed maturation for children—social implications (loss of estrus, women as child bearers)

Elimination of female estrus in Homo Sapiens

*strengthen male bonding
*reduced violence among males for mating rights
*allowed women to stay with children longer

Impact of cooked food on brain size

Social adaptations:
*more energy for brain use rather than gut -> larger brain
*more leisure time
*led to more socializing
*smaller jaw b/c food was softer and easier to chew
*deferment of appetite and impulse

Persistence of the Acheulean hand-axe

distinctive tool used for millions of years with little change

Barter vs. reciprocity (e.g. Adam and Oz)

like for like; 2 equals
vs
something you value for something that you value even more

Catallaxy effect

the reason for human evolution is economics
•explosive effect of division of labor and economics
*adam smith praised benefits of division of labor in capitalism
division of labor --> specialization --> innovation --> more possibility

Gendered division of labor

*divided tasks to men and women
*they each found food and came together to share->led to beginning of family unit

Ideal population density for hunter-gatherers

*hunter gatherers could not support a large population so they resorted to:
-infanticide (drowning, smashing head on rock, neglect)
-prolonged nursing which delayed pregnancy

Gradual shift to horticulture 9000 B.C.E.

using hoes to poke holes in the ground --> throwing seeds; very small-scale and simple
- began as a supplement to hunter-gatherer lifestyle
b/c of large expansion of population, people decided to settle and go into this (it was either move or grow food)

Advent of agriculture

population increase --> needed more food; could not maintain 2:1 ratio --> settling down
c. 6000 BCE

Co-dependent Domestication

humans domesticated the land - farming; farming also domesticated humans - utterly dependent on farming

Why urbanization?

Irrigation management (water theory)- Urban centers often emerge near reliable water sources or areas suitable for irrigation
trade center (trade theory) -strategic location, fosters economic activity and encourages specialization
security needs/religious center (temple theory) - protection against external threats, spiritual guidance + social cohesion
eg: Çatal Huyuk

Early Dynastic Period (3000-2500 B.C.E.)

It is marked by the emergence of city-states, the development of writing (like cuneiform), organized religion centered around temples, and increased social stratification.
Assembly of elders→Kingship
Impact of "surplus" and inheritance
Social stratification (among wealth and gender)

Mesopotamia

A region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers that developed the first urban societies. In the Bronze Age this area included Sumer and the Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires, In the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires.

Tigris-Euphrates

two rivers that form the outside border of Mesopotamia

Fertile Crescent - most likely where horticulture took off

Sumer

A group of ancient city-states in southern Mesopotamia; the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia.

Cuneiform

A system of writing in which wedge-shaped symbols represented words or syllables, used to record economic transactions
It originated in Mesopotamia and was used initially for Sumerian and Akkadian but later was adapted to represent other languages of western Asia.

Marduk's defeat of Tiamat

symbolized shift from pluralistic, consensus-based authority to permanent authority
Patron god of Babylon-
the primordial goddess of the salt sea, in a battle that allowed him to create the universe

Gilgamesh

King of the city of Uruk
- 2/3 god, 1/3 human
- Loss of personal privacy for the people, too much power of the "government"

Symbolism of Enkidu

-represents a natural, untamed existence
-His wildness represents authenticity and the fundamental aspects of being human, which Gilgamesh has lost in his pursuit of power and glory.
-helps Gilgamesh realize the value of companionship, empathy, and humility
-even the strongest and most revered can succumb to death
-legacy lies in the impact Gilgamesh leaves on his people and the world.

Siduri's Counsel

to be content with the simple pleasures in life (advice to Gilgamesh)

Hammurabi's code

earliest form of law, rather harsh viewpoint of justice to maintain a sprawling empire
"Eye for an eye" justice (Mesoptamia/babylon)

Tanak

Old Testament/Hebrew Bible (contains torah/laws, prophets, writings)

Torah or Pentateuch

First five books of the Hebrew Bible

The Documentary Hypothesis

a theory that the first five books of the Bible, the Pentateuch, were written by multiple authors rather than just Moses: The most common "documents" are labeled: J, E, P & D.
j - jerusalem source - southern kingdom of judah
E- elohist source - northern kindom of israel
D- dueteronomny- reign of josiah
P -priestly source - after + during babylon exile

Yahweh vs. Elohim

J- "lord"/ more likely to be from Judah and portrays God as more "human", with emotions
E- "god"/ more likely to be more Israel and portrays God as more remote, controlling, transcendant

Book of Genesis—2 versions of creation

E- version: *Adam and Eve created at the same time
*More allusions to Mesopotamian myths, humans more wicked

J-version: *Adam created first & Eve created from rib bone
*God: fallible, complex with emotion/thoughts, more human characteristics

Hebrew

linguistic designation for a Semitic language spoken by a nomadic people - abraham

Israelite

Hebrew speaking people who settled in Palestine - jacob

Jew

descendants of Israelites who returned to Judah after the Babylonian Exile - judah

Ethical Monotheism

belief of a single all-powerful God with an emphasis on an individual's ethical accountability

Abraham

Historical context of migration (underdog nomadic people), personal attributes (resourceful survivor, skilled negotiator, hospitality, lack of greed, humility)

Moses and the Covenant

Promise: we are God's people
Sign: 10 commandments

- leader that God called to bring the people of Israel out of Egypt
- was given the law by God
- extension/re-establishment of the covenant God made with Abraham: God will be their God if they obey him

Shift to Kingship

need for stability, military leadership in bible

Prophet Samuel

Last judge of Israel - judge, priest, prophet
anointed the kings of Israel

12 Tribes of Israel

the future name for the descendants of Abraham; tribes named for the sons of Jacob/Israel
basis of Israel's political organization,
representing the whole of Israel and the continuity of God’s promises to His people

King Saul

1st king of Israel, man who "looked" like a "leader"; disobeyed God when he didn't destroy the Amalekites completely and tried to take on priestly duties - because of this, David became anointed

King David

2nd King of Israel - the "Golden Age" of Israel; very charismatic, strong warrior, conscious of the doubts people had because he was from the more powerful tribe of Judah, moved capital to Jerusalem - called "a man after God's own heart"

Dual Priesthood in Jerusalem

David in Jerusalem
-Share religious authority- symbolize unity between north and south
(1) From the North—Abiathar: descendant of Moses (Shiloh)
(2) From the South—Zadok: descendant of Aaron (Hebron)

Professional army

David was the First to create this (very successful)
Represents first king to not be dependent on tribes

Bathsheba and Uriah

David wanted him dead so he could have Bathsheba as a wife, so David puts him in the front line of battle and he is killed. Because of this, Bathsheba and David's first son died but David repented and eventually, the 2nd son, Solomon, would become king

Trans-generational retribution

the idea that actions both good and bad have consequences in subsequent generations

Solomon

3rd king of Israel - son of David; built the temple and was famed for his wisdom

Purging of rivals (Adonijah, Abiathar)

Solomon killed Adonijah his half-brother (he wanted the throne), and banishing Abiathar (David's priest) because he wanted Adonijah as king

12 Administrative Districts

Solomon divided region into 12 districts and each one would provide services (food and taxes) to the palace for one month each year

Marriage diplomacy and worship

Solomon is a great example of this, he had 700 marriages (300 concubines)
- Pagan Princesses
(he became influenced by his wives and concubines so God punished him)
-strengthen Israel’s political power and secure peace
Angered god and said the kingdom would divide after solomon’s rule

King Hiram of Tyre

-good relations with both David and Solomon
-gave Solomon wood for a temple in return for labor

Divided Kingdom

The split of Israel after Solomon died

Rehobaum of Judah

- son of Solomon
- extremely harsh policies toward the north --> secession
- ruled a divided kingdom; only Judah and Simeon remained

Jerobaum of Israel

crowned King after Rehobaum rebellion in isreal in north

Fall of Israel 722

Israel falls to Assyria --> "10 lost tribes of Israel"

Prophet Isaiah

Warned against alliances & encouraged faith in God
(1) Return to righteous conduct and social justice
(2) Believe that God is behind all historical developments

Jerusalem

God's city

King Hezekiah

centralization of worship in Jerusalem
(outlawed religious worship outside of the Temple of Jerusalem)
Tore down the high places - series of religious reforms

JE source time period

-written c. 10th century BCE (after rule of David, possibly)
-evidence of two sources possibly mirrors the difference in stories between the northern and southern kingdoms
-edited after Babylonian Exile
-After 722 (fall of Israel) the sources consolidate
- most likely from refugees coming from Israel to Judah

Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon

king of the Neo-Babylonians who conquers the northern kingdom of Israel in 722
powerful king of Babylon who took the best of Judah as exiles
- destroys Solomon's temple to subdue the rebellion

King Josiah's reforms in 622

-centralization of worship at Jerusalem.
- Discovers "Deuteronomy" (if you follow god, be the best person, everything will be great), the law and uses it as the justification for all his reforms -New Ethical Code
- praised by the authors as the "second Moses"
- died in a battle at Meggido: early death - great disappointment because Judah had seen him as the king that would restore the glory of David

Babylonian Exile of 597

The Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar laid siege to Jerusalem, and after the city surrendered, around 7,000 people were deported to Mesopotamia
King Jehoichin + 800 top skilled people were sent away to keep from rebellion

Destruction of Jerusalem 587

following a rebellion, Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon razes Jerusalem, destroys the Temple
- Jerusalem = "City of Desolation"

Prophet Jeremiah

dismissed myth of invincibility, called for realism (having to earn being the Chosen People), live life as best you can where you are (follow God's commandments)
rebuke of assumption that because Jerusalem is "Yahweh's city", he will not destroy it - assures the exiled people that if they do not repent, Yahweh will destroy his own city
- tells Israelites in Babylon to invest hope in Babylon, not in returning to Jerusalem

Job's integrity of faith

despite being innocent and righteous, Job suffers greatly but never curses God
tested by God, did not give up his faith

Question of divine justice

Concept that, unlike old belief, good things don't always come to good people, sometimes bad things happen even when you've done nothing wrong

Meaning of God's response (Job)

don't have right to question God
God is benevolent but the covenant does not mean you are entitled to rewards during your life if you follow God's commandments

Xia "Dynasty" (Hsia)

c. 2100-1700 BCE
1st political legendary dynasty before the Shang in traditional history(unknown if truly existed)

Erlitou Culture

-1st state-level society in China; remains are seen as correlating to the Xia dynasty - hypotheses that the site represents a Xia capital
-bronze age culture founded here

Shang "Dynasty"

c. 1500-1050 BCE
-2nd political dynasty - founded by the Zhou clan
- Oracle Bones, Shamanism, political-religious legitimacy, portrayal of Di, consort Fu Hao, Shang Tombs, feudal system, development of writing

Geographical Determinism

geography shapes history (ex. Yellow River + need for flood control shaped Chinese government --> centralization)

Yellow River

a large river in northern China, where Chinese civilization developed

Guiqui Convention

7th century BCE; states came together to talk about the Yellow River flood control; united the states and combined their resources to better flood control/irrigation systems
was significant because it was one of the early examples of diplomatic compromise between the Han Empire and the nomadic tribes on its borders.

Sinocentrism

The "Middle Kingdom" concept of China as the center of the world. Based on centuries of isolation

Isohyet Line

a line on a map or chart connecting areas of equal rainfall
in China, the Great Wall roughly follows its path
imaginary line through northern China - south of the line = much more rain

Origin myths

a story told about the founding and history of a particular group to reinforce a sense of common identity
-Xia: mother of Yu (founder of dynasty) gave birth to him as a result of eating some grains of Job's tears - born out of a rock OR Yu's father, Kan stole some "swelling mold" from the gods - could help make a dam to control floods but when he failed, the gods executed him. When someone cut his body, Yu emerged
Shang: Hseish (founder of dynasty) was born after his mom ate an egg dropped by a dark bird
Zhou: Lady Yuan of the Chiang clan stepped on the big toe of the footprint of the Supreme God --> "Sheng min"

The Great Yu

-Pops out of Kun's rock
-Hero bc determined/resourceful in controlling floods
-Worked on river for 13 years without returning home
-Mythical founder of Shang Dynasty
-Renowned for hairless shins
-hero of Mohist philosophy

Myth of Pangu

- Eyes: sun & mon
- Blood: rivers & oceans
- Hair: grass & trees
- Body Lice: humans & animals
Humble position to humanity-not center of creation
Pangu was born within a big black egg - when he cracked the egg, yin and yang was split; upper half of egg = sky + lower half of egg = ground

Shan-rang

ideal of succession (passing onto person of merit, not necessarily blood relation)

Mandate of Heaven

Belief that the right to rule is given by Heaven and if the ruler is unfit to rule, it can also be taken away

Written script

arose c. 1200 BCE
pictograms, phonograms, ideograms

Western Zhou Dynasty (Chou)

Shift from bronze to iron weaponry, Metal Bound Box, Collapse in 771
- shift from ritualistic divination to ethical ideals
- origin of the concept of the Mandate of Heaven

Duke of Zhou

-Brother of King Wu, served as regent for King Wen when he was a child - never became corrupted by power and, with the metal bound box, was willing to sacrifice himself for the good of the nation,
-Humble & righteous & lack of egotism
-Confucius idealized him as the epitome of a sagely minister

Lineage Fission

Zhou would create new lineages by sending lesser family members to create new towns
contributed to warring states period as the offshoots became more autonomous

Eastern Zhou—Luoyang

-new capital at Luoyang after Hao Jing was overrun
-Spring and Autumn Period (8th to 5th century BCE), Warring States (5th to 3rd century BCE)

Warring States Period

the period from 475 BC until the unification of China under the Qin dynasty, characterized by lack of centralized government in China. It followed the Zhou dynasty.

State of Lu

- Direct descent from 11th century figure, the Duke of Zhou
- relatively small and weak
- important because it is the homeland of Confucius
- strong focus on old Zhou rituals/rites

Demise of Rituals

-royal family became powerless and incredibly poor
- royals didn't have the resources to properly run the sacred rituals
- barons started performing the rituals in their own homes: blatant acts of sacrilege and mockery-Vassals killed kings
-Fathers killed by sons

"Hundred Schools of Thought"

the many philosophical schools of thought that grew during the Zhou dynasty - (Spring/Autumn + Warring States) about how to make the society more stable. 3 major philosophies began that influenced China: Confucianism, Daoism, Legalism

Mozi (Mo Tzu) and the Mohists

- Large following
- Hero: hairless-shin Yu
-Believed in self-sacrifice; like the Great Yu, people should work day and night without cease
(i) Utilitarianism
*only things with practical use (no music, funerals)
(ii) Universal love
*Formed vigilante army to protect weakest state being attacked
-Formed new defensive weaponry

Hui Shi (Hui Shih)

-logicians
-expert in debate
- only debated to win not actually find truth
- did not have good people skills

Shen Tao

-Ascetics - self discipline/abstention
- Passive and inert - not standing out
Renouncing the self- one with all things “follow the leader” + “be the leader”

Confucianism

- "perfectibility through learning": anyone can learn as long as they want to and put in the effort
- ideal of the "gentleman" - devotion to being a scholar and a civil servant
- ideal government = one that ruled by virtual

Confucius's personal life

-Native of Lu, probably from an aristocratic but impoverished family
-Early professional aspirations
-In order to redeem title, only way to redeem honor: education
-Wanted to be political adviser
-Career failed b/c: too righteous

The Analects

-Believed in human potential
- record of the conversations that Confucius had
- reveals Confucius as a "real person": variety of emotions, convinced that each of us can be truly humane at any moment if we really try
- his teaching through the example of his life

"School of Learners" or Rujia

-Gentleman in chinese used to mean noble birth but conf. Changed it to kindness + scholar
-fully commit yourself to learning u can be a gentlemen
-One corner teaching - teacher is a moral guide rather than just a source of knowledge
-Meritocracy - those with competence and merit are recognized as people who should be given important positions in society

Confucian Gentleman or Junzi

idea that a true gentleman is born of learning and practice at being ethical (not based on class), devoted to learning

"Perfectibility through Learning"

everyone can become better by learning