Political Ideas: Liberalism

where can the roots of liberalism be found? when?

in the Enlightenment (an intellectual movement that opposed the medieval politics and philosophy of faith, superstition and religion)
17th and 18th centuries

what did early liberalism argue about human nature
what did this attack about the time
what did it promote a belief in
what did it advocate the importance of

early liberalism argued:
humans were born free and morally equal and no one naturally had a right to tule over others

this directly attacked the natural form of government of the time - absolute monarchy

it promoted a belief in reason, rather than faith, and advocated the importance of the individual and freedom

liberalism on:
freedom and the individual?

freedom is central to all liberals as it benefits the individual.
an egocentric ideology.

liberalism on:
human nature
classical vs modern

optimistic view as rational and reasonable
classical liberals focus on humanity's natural qualities and ability of the individual to satisfy their own desires.
whilst modern liberals focus on what the individual can become given the right conditions

liberalism
society
debates over what?

promoting a diverse, tolerant society
debates arise over how to protect this and over the nature of the relationship between society, freedom and the individual

what is egotistical individualism

humans naturally seek to advance their own happiness.
self-interest approaches involves self-restraint and cooperation as the individual wants to have their rights respected so must in turn respect the rights of others.

what is the harm principle

J.S. Mill
the government can only rightfully extend its power over the individual in order to prevent actions or beliefs that bring harm to others.
it cannot extend this power in relation to self-regarding actions to protect the individual's own good - not allowing paternalism

exception of young, incapable or 'barbarous nations'

explain classical liberalism being
radical politically

government by consent promoted the idea that government should represent the will of the people rather than be the master of the people

explain classical liberalism on
negative freedom

the belief in liberty leads classical liberals to define liberty in terms of absence of restraint, leaving the individual free to pursue their own view of the good life
the state can only intervene to prevent harm to others.

explain classical liberalism on
free-market capitalism

the market economy, based around property rights, can deliver prosperity for the individual and society provided there is free trade and competition

the state must not interfere with free trade an competition by using subsidies or taxes, or promoting monopolies.

however, state plays crucial role in ensuring property is protected and contracts are enforced.

who are the key thinkers for liberalism

John Locke
Mary Wollstonecraft
John Stuart Mill
Thomas Hill Green
Betty Friedan
John Rawls

John Locke
what did he believe about humans in the state of nature?
how did his belief in rational humans develop a state

- in state of nature humans are perfectly free, equal with natural rights, e.g. right to property and bound by the law of nature where no one should harm others
- in SofN there would be clashes of interests between free men which could limit the individual's ability to advance their own happiness.
- as rational beings individuals would enter into a social contract to form the state so it could act as a neutral umpire to resolve these clashes

John Locke
what was the state built on the understanding of
what happens when the state breaks understanding
what is it limited by
what does this mean for the legislature
what should the state represetn

- the state is creation of mankind egotistically aiming to protect and enhance natural rights. it emerges because the people consent to create it
- when the state breaks the social contract, people can withdraw their consent and replace the government, e.g. the American Revolution
- state is limited by the principle of constitutionalism with a clear separation of powers to prevent the executive and legislature abusing their power.
- legislature should be a supreme power, but only a fiduciary power (holds it power in trust and must act in interests of ppl)
- state should represent directly the will of property-owning individuals.

Mary Wollstonecraft
principle book
main goal
view of human nature (how it applied to feminism)
core liberal beliefs in relation to women

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)
committed to extending liberal thinking to include women
- optimistic view of human nature, mankind as rational.
- pointed out that women had no formal equality and were not viewed as rational
- women should have formal equality: right to property, education and vote

Mary Wollstonecraft
how did she use liberal arguments to justify promoting women's rights:
- property/employment, education, vote, divorce

right to :
- property: this right is crucial to freedom
- education: to allow reason to prosper
- vote: to ensure govt. is by consent of all
- divorce: protection against domestic violence
- employment: protection against marriages out of financial necessity.

Mary Wollstonecraft
key opponent of what? on what basis?
in its place what did she argue for?

opponent of custom, tradition and practices that formed the divine right of kings and aristocratic rule
she argued that they gave no basis for accepting laws or the government so were irrational and oppressive

in its place, she argued for republicanism, formal equality for all and constitutional protection of individual rights

John Stuart Mill
key book and date - what did it provide
concept of negative freedom?
harm principle?
how did he view liberty?
what does liberty allow us to achieve?
what did he describe best society as

John Stuart Mill provided the bridge between classical and modern liberalism in On Liberty 1859.
- developed concept of negative freedom arguing that freedom is the absence of restraint as this leaves the individual truly free to pursue their own way of the good life.
- developed the harm principle as a result
- viewed Liberty as more than a natural right and as the key to ongoing development and learning of the individual, especially when they have education.
focused on potential that liberty provides to each person.
- liberty allows one to achieve their individuality
- liberty allows individuals to form a society as a 'diversity of character and culture'

what were the ideas of early liberalism central to (movements)?
when did different forms of liberalism take hold?

early liberalism was revolutionary and radical, ideas central to American Declaration of Independence 1776 and French Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789.

classical liberalism dominated until the late 19th century and modern liberalism has done since.

liberalism
the role of the state
classical vs modern

classical liberals see a minimal role for the state as it has the potential to restrict individual liberty
modern liberals favour a more interventionist role for the state in order to ensure that everyone has the same life chances.

liberalism
economy
classical vs modern

classical: favour free-market capitalism to drive economic creativity and prosperity for all
modern: favour state intervention in the economy to ensure that all can flourish

what are the main strands of classical liberalism
(dont explain just list)

- radically politically
- radical in gender terms (true for some classical liberals)
- egotistical individualism
- negative freedom
- night-watchman state
- free-market capitalism

what is negative freedom

concept of liberty meaning an absence of constraint
'freedom from' rather than 'freedom to'

explain classical liberalism being
radical in gender terms for some classical liberals

optimistic view that humans are rational was extended by a few classical liberals like Mary Wollstonecraft to include women as well.

explain classical liberalism on:
egotistical individualism

humans are self-seeking, rational and independent. this requires practising restraint and some cooperation with others
society is comprised of individuals rather than social groups

explain classical liberalism on
night watchman state

the state must only act to protect 'the peace, safety and public good of the people' (John Locke)
to ensure the widest possible freedom, it can only impose its power on the basis of the harm principle

John Locke
key work? century?
human nature?
creation of state?

classical liberalism
Two Treatises of Government 1690
argued humans are naturally free, equal and independent and not naturally under the authority of any other body (attacking monarch)

believed in the 'state of nature' to explain why man created the state, explaining why Locke's state of nature is not a state of war but rather a state of peace

John Stuart Mill
what is the role of the state
why?
what should the size of the state be?

- the role of the state, via education, is to enable people to constantly improve their mind and so increase their higher pleasures. Mill would prefer to be 'Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied'
- he criticised hedonism and distinguished between higher and lower pleasures

John Stuart Mill
democratic government function
concern Locke's principle of what could lead to what
his solution?

- Mill worried Locke's representative government could lead to the 'tyranny of the majority' with universal suffrage growing
- he feared the majority would infringe on the individualism of the minority by voting only for their own self-interests.
- Mill's solution: promote representative democracy w/ educated electorate to choose better-educated reps on their behalf. They would not act as delegates to follow the will of the majority but would mediate between demands of different parts of society.

is democracy compatible with liberalism?
Yes

- democracy enhances individualism. Individuals use the vote rationally to shape the world. Use of the vote has an educational role for the individual.

- democracy through regular free and fair elections creates government by consent, a crucial principle of traditional liberalism.

- democracy restricts the concentration of power. It places a limit on the state - a belief that classical liberals support.

is democracy compatible with liberalism?
No

- democracy may lead to the tyranny of the majority, especially where ppl have little education. Universal suffrage should go alongside with universal education.

- classical liberals wished to restrict the franchise to those with property and J.S. Mill suggested giving more voting power to the educated.

- representative democracy, rather than direct democracy, dilutes majority rule as the elected representatives make the decisions

modern liberalism
what do they question, as posed by classical liberals?
what prompted modern liberalism to ask this?
what are the main strands of modern liberalism?

modern liberals question what is meant by liberty.
prompted by the rise of modern advanced societies where poverty restricted the individual's ability to develop, grow and pursue their version of the good life
- positive freedom
- enabling state
- social liberalism

modern liberalism
how was individualism viewed
Thomas Hill Green argued that inequality should be tackled why?
liberty redefined to what?

- individualism was not about self-pursuit of pleasure but to allow the individual to flourish morally and intellectially to achieve their own individuality - developmental individualism
- Thomas Hill Green built on this to argue that in modern, capitalist societies, poverty and inequality should be tackled to 'maintain the conditions without which a free exercise of human faculties is impossible'
- resultantly, liberty needed to be redefined as to not be an absence of restraint but rather positive freedom to enable individuals to achieve their individuality.

modern liberalism
due to positive freedom, why must the role of the state be reformed?
how was a welfare state justified
which key thinker argued what about the role of the state in the economy

- positive freedom justifies the extension of the role of the state to allow it to intervene to protect freedom and individualism
- provision of a welfare state could be justified on the grounds that it provided equality of opportunity.
- John Maynard Keynes argued the state needed to intervene in the economy to bring about full employment and economic growth, to ensure the necessary prosperity for all to be free to pursue their version of the good life.

modern liberalism
social liberalism - how justified
what based off of?
state enforcement justified how?
modern examples and use of what?

modern liberalism revises classical liberalism's position on toleration, which aims to safeguard it by granting formal equality to all
- modern liberals go further, promoting greater toleration and equality of opportunity bc certain people are discriminated against. consistent with view of enabling state and positive freedom
- key role for state intervention to discriminate in favour of groups who have suffered historically to ensure there is equality of opportunity
- modern examples include same-sex marriage and the use of positive discrimination to promote real equality for women and ethnic minority groups.

key thinker: Thomas Hill Green
alive when?
book?
opinions on negative freedoms?
how can positive freedom be achieved?
argued that the state should take a role where?

1836-82
Lectures on the Principle of Political Obligation
- freedom should also be understood in a positive manner: the freedom of the individual to rise above the self-interested concerns and contribute to the good of society by making the most of their unique abilities and talents
- positive freedom can only be achieved by removing hereditary privilege and tackling poverty.
- the state had to take a more positive role by aiming to reduce poverty and working class awful conditions

key thinker: Betty Friedan
alive when?
book?
what did she argue about societal ideas of women?
how did she argue her points from a liberal approach?
if there is what, what can be achieved - what type of liberalism is this?

1921-2006
Feminine Mystique
argued: societal idea that women's roles as a wife and mother could fulfil them left women feeling miserable and empty
- the idea that a woman is solely defined by her familial obligations limits her development as a human
- if there is formal equality, a liberal approach, then women can achieve marriage, motherhood and a career.

what famous quote is from Betty Friedan describing women's feeling miserable over their roles in society

'the problem that has no name'

key thinker: Betty Friedan
second book?
liberal approach type?
what did she argue in this second book?
what did the activist women's movement aim to bring about?

- The Second Stage (1981)
- moved to a more modern liberal approach whereby the state should enforce changes in public values, institutions and leadership styles in order to allow all people to achieve flourishment.
- the activist women's movement aimed to grant formal equality in society and also active intervention from the state to tackle gender inequality and ensure equality of opportunity.

key thinker: John Rawls
book?
when alive?
what his key idea?
what liberal idea did he reaffirm? how greatly does he hold this value?

1921-2002
A Theory of Justice
developed the idea of an enabling state based on the principle of equality as fairness.
- reaffirmed liberal idea of foundational equality, arguing everyone should have equal rights and basic liberties.
--> this is his overriding principle - ensuring basic liberties cannot be infringed upon

key thinker: John Rawls
what idea about society's construction did he develop?
what would people be under in this?
consequently, how would society rationally develop?
then, what role would the state play?
what principle is then developed as a result?

- developed the idea of the original position. A thought experiment whereby ppl construct the society they would want to live in. They would be under the veil of ignorance so wouldn't know what their identity/place in society would be.
- thus, rational individuals would choose a more socially and economically equal society as avoiding poverty is a stronger incentive than desire for great wealth.
- thus, an enabling state is consistent with the idea of government by consent.
--> leads to principle of distributive justice.

what is distributive justice?

social inequality is permissible if there is equality of opportunity and the inequalities in society are only justifiable if they are to the greatest benefit of the least well-off.

who was the most prominent neoliberal thinker?
book? date published?
how is neoliberalism viewed as close to?
why?
what does neoliberalism aim to do?

F.A.Hayek - The Road to Serfdom (19944)
criticised modern liberalism and sought to return it to its classical roots

associated with conservatism as it reactionary.
aims to roll back the welfare state and Keynesian economic management to return to the minimal state and free-market capitalism of the 19th century.

what are the key ideas of neoliberalism?
economy?
type of freedom?
welfare state?
best drivers of economic and social progress?

- to reapply free-market capitalism and a night-watchman state
- private property and negative freedom are central to freedom and individualism
- the welfare state was a betrayal of individualism, rather in favour of collectivism (socialist).
involves the state placing unjustified restrictions on individual liberty.
creates a dependency culture, ppl rely on the state not themselves
- free trade, free markets and globalisation are the best drivers of economic and social progress

core idea: freedom and the individual
what is the basis for thinking about human nature, the state, society, economy, etc.?
whilst the individual is unique, what also simultaneously is true?
what does Locke say about that?
what is the core liberal value and why?
when do humans flourish most?
what is J.S.Mill's quote on rationality of self-interest mankind?

- the individual is the key basis for thinking about how the world should work
- whilst the individual is unique with their own abilities, everyone is morally equal because they are all individuals themselves.
- Locke argues every one has natural rights to 'life, liberty and property'
- freedom is the core liberal value because every individual is unique and also equal
- humans flourish most when they are given the widest possible freedom to make rational decisions, own property and have their own way of life.
J.S. Mill: 'over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign'

core idea: freedom and the individual
what type of individualism are classical liberals interested in? what does it involve and lead to?
what type of individualism are modern liberals interested in? what does this entail?

classical liberalism: egotistical individualism. see the individual as self-seeking&reliant and independent. society is a loose collection of individuals.
this leads to individuals cooperating with one another, practicing self-restraint for their self-interest so they can live in a peaceful society that allows them to flourish how they want.

modern liberalism: developmental individualism. individuals are free when they rise above narrow self-interest to participate in shared way of life and contribute to the common good by improving themselves as a part of society.

core idea: human nature
what view of human nature is held by liberals?
where did this view originate from? what did it oppose?
what did Locke argue about human nature? who was this notably unlike?
what did Locke's idea that individuals should be given the widest possible freedom come from?
why should there be little need for violent revolution?
what produces social progress and individual happiness?

- optimistic view of human nature
- emerged from the Enlightenment and opposed the religious view that humankind is imperfect and flawed due to the original sin.
- Locke argued that humans are naturally free, equal and not under the authority of any body or person.
This is unlike Hobbe's Leviathan that argued a mighty state was necessary to protect people from themselves.
- Locke's belief that individuals should have the widest possible freedom to act in their own desired way is because they possess reason.
- there should be little need for violent revolution because humans are naturally rational and tolerant in recognising the individuality of other men.
- the ability to pursue self-interest rationally produces individual happiness as well as social progress

core idea: human nature
why did liberal thinkers begin to view the classical interpretation of human nature as flawed?
how did Friedan see human nature?
how did Green see human nature?
what did Rawls argue human nature has the capacity for?

- the classical interpretation was slowly depopularized as the egotistical element led to inequality so the state needed to intervene to promote equality of opportunity.
- Friedan saw how human nature, unchecked by the state, had produced gender inequality
- Green argued human nature was more than just self-interested but rather had a social dimension ya que individuals can only flourish in a society where everyone facilitates everyone else's flourishment.
- Rawls argued human nature has the capacity for toleration and mutual respect.

core idea: the state
what is the fundamental purpose of the state? how did Locke describe its safeguarding nature?
what theory is the liberal view of the state based upon?
why did Locke argue the state must be limited and how?
why do modern liberals strongly emphasise constitutionalism?
what principle did Mill develop to do with the reach of the state's power?

- the state is built by man to ensure that the natural rights and laws of natural society are safeguarded so individuals can flourish. Locke: 'where there is no law, there is no freedom'
- social contract theory means government is consented to by the individual so the individual can flourish
- Locke: state must be limited to prevent tyrannical govt. that would violate natural rights. Constitutionalism limits state power.
- modern liberals emphasise this as they desire universal suffrage whilst harbouring concern for 'tyranny of the majority' so strengthen limits on government

core idea: the state
to promote individualism, what type of system should the state be?
modern liberals accept a what role of the state? why?
what did Green argue about state intervention being justified?
how did Rawls develop this?
for liberals, what is the ideal structure for the state? why?

- the state should be a meritocracy in order to promote individualism so ppl can be successful due to unique capabilities
- modern liberals accept an enlarged role of the state para improve people's lives so they can help themselves.
- Green argued that tackling poverty, via education, public housing and healthcare, was essential to enable individuals to achieve their full potential - for equality of opportunity.
- Rawls believed increased taxation and public spending allowed for social justice and equality of opportunity for all.
- ideal structure of the state was one of limited government.

what are the features of limited government?

constitutionalism
fragmented government (separated powers)
formal equality
rule of law

core idea: society
what characteristics should society ideally have?
how did Locke view religious toleration?
why did Mill believe toleration and diversity was key for societal progress?
why did Friedan argue that the state should take a more proactive role, like positive discrimination?

- society should be tolerant and diverse, respecting the individual's right to hold their own beliefs and values as long as the do not restrict others
- Locke argued therefore that religious tolerance was a private matter so should be up to the individual
- Mill saw toleration and diversity as key to a progressive society as competition of ideas will sharpen and refine good ideas to succeed
- Friedan argued that the state should take a more proactive role to ensure there was real equality of opportunity for women.

core idea: economy
what central belief underpins liberalism's approach to the economy?
why do liberals support capitalism and some inequality of wealth distribution?
what should the government be limited to in the economy?
what is the 'invisible hand'?
what type of view is this and what does it expect to happen?
modern liberals such as who saw free-market capitalism as creating what?
what has this led modern liberals to endorse?

- liberalism's central belief in the right to property (established by Locke) underpins its approach
- liberals support capitalism and some inequality of wealth distribution because the free market embodies freedom as the individual is wholly allowed to use makes decisions for themselves over their own finances, investments, etc.
- the government should be limited to ensuring property is secure and contracts are honoured to allow a free market with trade and competition exists.
- 'invisible hand' of the market is automatic due to individuals making rational choices based on the circumstances of the market situation. e.g. where products are abundant, ppl will pay less and investment is moved to other areas.
- this is an optimistic view that sees the market guiding individuals to economic success.
- modern liberals like Green saw free-market capitalism as creating socioeconomic obstacles to individuals achieving their full potential
--> thus they endorsed the Keynesian theory

tensions within liberalism:
human nature

areas of agreement?

- liberals have optimistic view of human nature and progress.
- view individuals as morally equal, independent and rational, pursuing their version of the good life
- individualism must be protected and promoted
- there should be toleration of different values, beliefs and version of the good life

tensions within liberalism
human nature

areas of tension?

- classical (and neo-) liberals see these qualities as innate for individuals and that individuals thus develop best when left free to pursue their own happiness.,
- modern liberals build on Mill's view that rationalism needs to be developed and that individualism is more a reflection of what humans can become rather than what they simply are.
- Green saw human nature as having a clear social dimension and argued that freedom is achieved by working towards the common good.
--> this provides the basis for the state to enable individuals to help themselves by providing not just formal equality but equality of opportunity.

tensions within liberalism
the state

areas of agreement?

- all liberals argue that the state should be limited by constitutionalism, fragmentation of power, formal equality for citizens and rule of law

tensions within liberalism
the state

areas of tension?

- classical: state should have a night-watchman role, justified by the concept of negative freedom and with intervention only justified by the harm principle, to protect actions that are harmful to others (not paternalistic).
- modern: argue for an enabling state, where intervention should be far greater in order to enable people to be free to pursue their own individuality, in line with the concept of positive freedom.

- classical: like Locke, favoured a representative govt. that only reflect interests of property-owning individuals.
- modern: favour representative democracy with universal suffrage and strong constitutional limits, but are concerned that democracy can allow tyranny of the majority. Thus they view education as crucial to the wise use of the ballot.

tensions within liberalism
society

areas of agreement

- all liberals stress individualism and freedom and that society should be arranged to allow the individual to flourish.

tensions within liberalism
society

areas of tension

- classical: natural society existed before the state and was peaceful (Locke): individuals are self-seeking and independent but constrained by their rational nature which leads them to respect the rights of others so their own rights are respected in turn.

- modern: see modern industrial societies, based on free-market capitalism, as restricting the ability of individuals to be free (Green) due to socioeconomic obstacles. This leads to social justice being enforced by the state to ensure positive freedom and lack of discrimination based on identity or circumstances.

- neoliberals: emphasise negative freedom, arguing that the enabling state has unjustly reduced liberty and created a dependency culture which limits individualism by removing people's self-reliance.

tensions within liberalism
economy

areas of agreement

- emerging from Locke's natural laws, all liberals emphasise the right to property and advocate an economy based on private property as the best route to creating wealth..
- property is seen as essential to freedom and protecting the individual from the state.

tensions within liberalism
economy

areas of tension

- classical and neo-: the state's only role is to protect property and enforce contracts and thus the market should be left to guide rational individuals.
- free trade w/o subsidies, taxes or regulations, will provide the most efficient outcomes and drive economic prosperity and creativity for all.

- modern: state is justified in intervening in economy with tools of tax and public spending to manage capitalism so it delivers full employment for all
- full employment provides necessary wealth to reduce poverty so that all can be free to choose their own version of the good life.,
the means of production should be left in the hands of private companies as a safeguard of personal liberty.