dff midterm 3

Knowing that gas exchange occurs across membranes, and using your knowledge of Fick's Law, which of the following tissue types would you expect to line the respiratory tissue of the lungs?

Thin simple epithelial tissue

When the diaphragm relaxes, thoracic volume __________, causing intrapulmonary pressure to ___________. This results in the bulk flow of gases outward.

decreases; increase

This is NOT a characteristic of closed circulatory systems

regions where blood is drained into reservoirs/intercellular spaces

This is NOT true of blood capillaries

They have dead-ends and are discontonuous

Gray whales are large cetaceans (marine mammals), considered to be filter/suspension feeders. How do they acquire enough energy to fuel their metabolic demands?

They filter very large amounts of food items.

What molecule contains the largest amount of stored energy?

Triglycerides

Knowing about the mouse-to-elephant curve, would you expect medicinal dosing (administering medications) to be linearly scalable across closely related species, such as mammals?

No; metabolic demand increases exponentially (per unit mass) as mass decreases - so processing of medicine should not be expected to be a linear relationship.

These organisms all have hydrostatic tissue

box jellyfish, earthworm, humans and camels

This organism does not contain calcium carbonate/phosphate-derived support systems

Horseshoe crab

You cut your hand on a dirty, sharp object. As you address the issue, you also immediately take a small sample to look at under the microscope and find some white blood cells (WBCs) in relatively high density. What overall function do you think is being served at this time by the WBCs?

Recognition, general, non-specific attack 

These are all associated with innate immunity as a defense mechanism

egg shells, sweat, amoebocytes, PAMPS, and cuticles

What type of leukocyte is associated specifically with the destruction of multicellular parasites, such as hookworms?

Eosinophil

This is NOT a characteristic of adaptive immunity

Broad-spectrum attack

How does the adaptive immune system accommodate for the large number of antigens it will likely encounter?

It relies heavily on somatic recombination to generate antibody diversity.

What is unique to the cell-mediated immunity pathway (meaning something only this pathway includes)?

Activation of cytotoxic T cells

This is NOT a characteristic of humoral immunity

Requires antigen to be bound to MHC proteins

A pseudostratified epithelial cell lining your respiratory tract has been infected with the COVID virus. As part of the viral life cycle, viral proteins are produced within the host cell; some are broken down and bound to MHC proteins on the cell surface. What type of immediate response would this specific example elicit?

Activation of cytotoxic T cells

What is the primary target cell type of HIV?

helper T cells

The Endocrine System has ___________ communication and has ____________ (relative to the Nervous System).

long-distance; prolonged responses

This is NOT associated with exocrine glands

Products circulating within bloodstream

You discover a new hormone while conducting research in a laboratory. Upon examining mass spectrometry results and other molecular test results, it was determined the molecular structure consists of two aromatic amino acids. What type of hormone can this be classified as?

Monoamine

This is NOT associated with transport and action of most peptide hormones

Travel in blood bound to transport protein

This is NOT considered to be associated with (or true of) the posterior pituitary gland

Hypophyseal portal system

Somatic cells play important roles in reproduction. This is NOT an example of a role in reproduction

Producing gametes

The natural breeding period for horses is typically May to August. During this period, female horses have ~21 day estrus cycle with a ~6 day window during which ovulation occurs (estrus phase). Horses additionally exhibit courtship behavior leading up to copulation. What challenge(s) are presented with regards to fertilization?

Polyspermy, behavioral challenges, fertilization success isn’t always 100%, need for proper timing of estrus & copulation

What type of ovulators are horses?

Spontaneous ovulators

A  young, new free-range chicken farmer has noticed that a coyote has killed the flock's rooster overnight. However, to their surprise, hens produced fertilized eggs over the next couple weeks. What does this new farmer learn about chickens?

They have decoupled reproduction

How do blastomeres "know" what type of tissue to become?

Cytoplasmic determinants inherited from egg cytoplasm and mRNA from egg guides early blastomere activity

You are observing the early stages of cleavage of a sheep zygote under a high-powered microscope in a breeding clinic, as directed by your supervisor. Your nefarious colleague tries talking you into removing a cell to see what happens. Your colleague thinks the separate resulting units will develop incompletely. Are they be correct?

No. Deuterostomes undergo regulative development.

gas exchange

the process where oxygen is inhaled and carbon dioxide is exhaled

olfaction

take in odorants from external environment by using a pressure difference

pH balance

CO2 is highly implicated in blood pH as bicarbonate

blood flow

gradients of pressure in blood formed by respiration

how respiratory system communicates

generation of sounds

homeostasis in respiratory system

uses negative feedback & chemoreceptors based around O2 and/or CO2

what is the final electron acceptor in the ETC?

oxygen

goals of respiratory homeostasis

deliver oxygen to cells’ mitochondria and remove CO2

general respiratory system pathway

breath in oxygen, diffuse oxygen across simple epithelial cells into capillaries, circulate oxygenated blood to tissues, diffuse across capillary walls into cells, enter mitochondria

bulk flow

gas travels down a pressure gradient, similar to a concentration gradient, blood circulation

diffusion

into lungs & blood. out of blood capillary, into cell membrane, then cytoplasm & mitochondria

alveoli

small pockets where air can collect and diffuse across into nearby capillaries. has immune cells in it to protect against airborne pathogens. gasses move between environment and internal tissues

diaphragm contracts

volume increases, internal pressure decreases, causes inspiration

diaphragm relaxes

volume decreases, internal pressue increases, causes expiration

fish gas exchange

water passes through gill filaments (capillaries), capillaries are deoxygenated, causing oxygen to diffuse across into them. oxygen concentration goes from HIGH to LOW

ram mechanisms

adaptions that runs the water over the gill filaments by the sheer velocity of the fish’s movement

pump mechanisms

the process by which a fish may bring water into its mouth and pump it over the gill filaments

unidirectional flow

no tidal air flow, one direction

air sacs

air flows into posterior sacs, across parabronchi, then into anterior air sacs

parabronchi

site of capillary gas exchange

trachea

under exoskeleton, tube system of air made of tubes

tracheoles

smaller, capillary-like tubes for providing inner body parts with area for gas to diffuse across

spiracles

small holes across the body to allow air to enter the trachea system and for CO2 to exitfound in insects and some arthropods

Heart

Responsible for pumping blood throughout the body.

Blood

Carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products.

Cardiac Vessels

Tubes that carry blood throughout the body, including arteries, veins, and capillaries

White Blood Cells (WBCs)/Leukocytes

Involved in the immune response by identifies and destroys pathogens. includes phagocytes (neutrophils and macrophages) and lymphocytes (B and T cells)

Stem Cells

Transported to other tissues for repair and regeneration.

Open Circulatory System

Found in some invertebrates and aquatic animals. Blood is not always contained within vessels, and the fluid (hemolymph) comes into direct contact with tissues

Closed Circulatory System

Found in vertebrates, cephalopod mollusks, and some annelids. Blood is contained within vessels, and there is a higher pressure driving the flow of fluid

Dilation

increases blood flow

Constriction

decreases blood flow

Microcirculation

Nutrients, wastes, hormones, and white blood cells move between blood and tissues through capillaries

Blood Composition

erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), platelets, and plasma

Plasma Composition

water, proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, waste products, hormones, and gasses

Hemoglobin

tetramer consisting of four globin chains, each with an iron molecule in the center. binds with oxygen

Oxygen Unloading

Oxygen is released from hemoglobin in response to increased metabolic demands in tissues, creating a lower partial pressure of oxygen near active cells.

Cardiac output

the volume of blood pumped per minute

stroke volume

volume pumped per beat

Series Circulatory Plan

the systemic and pulmonary circuits are connected in series, ensuring efficient oxygen delivery.

heterotrophic

animals that rely on external sources for organic molecules in order to survive

fluid feeder

gets nutrients by absorbing the liquid in organic molecules

suspension feeder

ingests small organisms in water, e.g. bacteria

deposit feeder

picks up/scrapes food particles, e.g. earthworms and some crabs

bulk feeding

eats whole animal/large chunks

calcium in animals

helps with bone formation, nervous & muscular system functions

phosphorus in animals

helps with nucleic acid formation, ATP production and bone formation

sodium in animals

helps with nervous & muscular system function, water balance

potassium in animals

helps with nervous & muscular system function

epithelium

a sheet of cells covering surfaces or organs, facilitates compartmentalization and enables the movement of substances across barriers.

peristalsis

movement of tract to propel food products through

Ruminant animals digestion

have evolved symbiotic relationships with microbes to digest cellulose and extract nutrients from plant material.

Bilaterians digestion

exhibit tube gut systems, with specialized structures such as mouths, stomachs, and crops for food processing and storage.

Musculoskeletal System

provides structural support, facilitates movement, and protects internal organs in animals. comprises muscles, bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and joints.

Hydrostatic Skeletons

Found in soft-bodied invertebrates, moves by changing the pressure fluid within fluid-filled cavities surrounded by muscles to maintain shape and enable movement. E.g. earthworms

Exoskeletons

Present in arthropods like insects, are rigid external structures, made of materials such as chitin or calcium carbonate. Muscles attach to the inner surface allowing segmented movement.

Endoskeletons

Present in vertebrates. composed of bones and cartilage. These internal frameworks provide support, protect, internal organs, and serve as attachment sites for muscles.

Molting

Arthropods undergo this to shed their old exoskeletons and grow larger. The process involves secreting enzymes to soften the old exoskeleton, shedding it, and then hardening

Bone Composition

hydroxyapatite (inorganic component) for strength and rigidity; collagen (organic component) for flexibility; cartilage a tough and flexible connective tissue for joint support

Osteoblasts

a bone cell, deposits new bone matrix and grows bone tissue

Membranous Bone

forms directly on a scaffold of connective tissue membrane, e.g. bones of the skull

Cartilage Bone

initially forms as a cartilaginous structure that gradually ossifies into bone, e.g. limb bones

Compact Bone

Dense and solid bone, forms the shafts of long bones, provides strength and support

Spongy Bone

Porous, trabecular structure. Found at the ends of bones. Contains red bone marrow, where blood cells are produced and bone weight is reduced

Joints

Two or more bones meet, allowing movement and flexibility, e.g. ball and socket joints (hip joint), hinge joints (elbow joint) and pivot joints (atlas-axis joint)

Synarthroses

immovable joints

Amphiarthrosis

slightly movable joints

Diarthroses

freely movable joints

Antagonistic Muscles

one muscle contracts to produce movement while the other relaxes

Lever System

a fulcrum (pivot point), load arm (distance from the fulcrum to the load) and force arm (distance from the fulcrum to the point where force is applied)

bacteria

single-celled microorganisms that can cause infections ranging from mild to severe, such as streptococcus and e. coli