Psychological Development: Key Concepts and Theories

Developmental Psychology

The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences.

Nature-Nurture issue

Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes.

Twin studies

Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects.

Identical Twins

A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg, monozygotic, which later split into two distinct individuals.

Fraternal Twins

A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb.

Adoption Studies

Studies in which the adopted child's characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family.

Developmental stages

Periods of life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning.

Continuity

Is development a gradual continuous process (like an elevator)?

Discontinuity

Is development a sequence of separate stages (like rungs on a ladder)?

Germinal period

First two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining.

Embryonic period

The period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.

Fetal period

Time from about 8 weeks after conception until birth (development of fetus).

Placenta

An organ that develops between the embryo/fetus and the mother.

Critical periods

Times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.

Teratogen

Any factor that can cause a birth defect.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Leading cause of mental retardation.

Neonatal Period

Birth to 1 month.

Sensory Abilities

All senses are functioning, vision is limited for first 4-6 weeks.

Motor Abilities

Include Stepping Reflex, Grasping Reflex, Sucking Reflex, Rooting Reflex, Babinski Reflex, and Moro Reflex.

Maturation

Refers to development that largely unfolds on its own.

Motor Development

The sequence of motor development is nearly the same in all parts of the world.

90% of all babies

Will begin walking by 15 months.

Toilet Training

example of the process of maturation

Cognitive Development

the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas)

Schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information formed through experiences with objects and events

Assimilation

Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schema

Accommodation

Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood

Piaget's Stage Theory of Cognitive Development

a theory outlining the stages children go through in cognitive development

Sensorimotor stage

first stage in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment; Birth to 2 years

Object Permanence

the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

Preoperational Stage

second stage in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world; Approx. ages 2 to 6 or 7

Think Symbolically

one thing can represent something else

Egocentrism

the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes

Centration

the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

Irreversibility

the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

Concrete Operational stage

third stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking; about 7 to 11 years old

Conservation

the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object's nature

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking; 11 and beyond

Abstract thinking

the ability to think about concepts and ideas that are not physically present

Scaffolding

process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

Lev Vygotsky's Theory

Impact of the social context on a child's cognitive growth

Piaget

a psychologist who developed theories on cognitive development in children

Cognitive Growth

the process of developing the ability to think and understand

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance.

Socialization

The lifelong process of shaping an individual's behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society.

Temperament

The behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth.

Easy Temperament

Regular, adaptable, and happy.

Difficult Temperament

Irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable.

Slow to Warm Up Temperament

Need to adjust gradually to change.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to solve new problems, see relationships and think abstractly, which begins to decline around age 60.

Crystallized Intelligence

The accumulated knowledge, skills, experience and intelligence that generally increases with age.

Attachment

The emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver.

Secure Attachment Style

Willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return.

Avoidant Attachment Style

Unattached; explore without 'touching base', can attach to stranger.

Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment Style

Insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return.

Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment Style

Insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed.

Separation Anxiety

Distress at being separated from parents or caregiver.

Stranger Anxiety

Distress upon encountering new, unfamiliar people.

Contact Comfort

Human newborns need physical touch and nurturance.

Language

A system for combining symbols (spoken, written, or signed) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others.

Phonemes

The basic units of sound in language.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning within a language.

Grammar

The system of rules governing the structure and use of a language.

Syntax

The system of rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences.

Semantics

The rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences.

Babbling Stage

Make speech sounds both in and out of native language.

Holophrastic Stage

The one word stage where productive language begins at around the 1st birthday.

Telegraphic Stage

Grammatically correct 2 word saying, contains mostly nouns and verbs, follows rules of syntax; Example... "big doggy"

Overgeneralization/Overregularization

Extending the application of a rule to items that are excluded from it in the language norm; Example: "Yesterday I goed to psychology"

Generative Nature of Language

Language is generative - users can create and understand an infinite number of sentences, as long as they are shared and understood by the society you belong in.

Critical periods of learning

Occur in childhood; if a child has not been spoken to or learned (sign) language by age 7, they lose their ability to master any language.

Imprinting

Rigid attachment process during an organism's critical period, usually immediately after birth, as if it is their mother.

Transitional Object

An object, such as a blanket, that provides comfort to a child.

Diana Baumrind's Parenting Styles

Most approaches to child rearing fall into one of the following 4 styles: Authoritarian, Authoritative, Permissive, Neglectful.

Authoritarian Parents

Establish rules and expectations; expect obedience; punishment.

Authoritative Parents

Establish rules but also listen to input from children; reinforcement and punishment correlate with positive outcomes for children.

Permissive / Indulgent Parents

Parents submit to their children; children given freedom.

Neglectful or Uninvolved Parents

Parents are disengaged from their children's emotional and developmental needs.

Adolescence

Developmental period beginning at puberty and ending at adulthood; from about age 13 to the early twenties.

Puberty

The physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak; period of about four years when we become sexually mature.

Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics

Primary are present at birth; Secondary develop during puberty.

Rites of Passage

Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood.

Formal operational stage

Piaget's final stage of cognitive growth involving abstract and complex thought.

Emerging Adulthood

Transitional period between adolescence and adulthood, particularly in Western cultures.

Egocentric Thinking

A type of thought common to adolescents, characterized by personal fable and imaginary audience.

Personal Fable

Type of thought common to adolescents in which they believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.

Imaginary Audience

Type of thought common to adolescents where they believe others are as concerned about their thoughts and characteristics as they are.

Erik Erikson and Psychosocial Development

Personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages, with a psychosocial crisis at each stage.

Psychosocial Crisis

A conflict between psychological needs of the individual and the social needs of society at each of Erikson's stages.

Identity crisis

Sense of self changes and is shaped by the question 'who am I?' often answered by group memberships.

Marcia's Identity formation

The process by which adolescents explore and commit to different identities.