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Social Identity Theory
Suggests that there are two aspects of the self
Personal identity is known only to oneself and close friends/family
Social identity is the self defined by group memberships (eg. gender, ethnicity)
Based on three principles
Individuals strive to maintain and enhance self-esteem
Membership to social groups may have negative and/or positive associations
Social comparisons with other groups are made to asses an in-group’s value
Individuals may also move between social groups (permeability)
Permeability
The ability of an individual to change/move between social groups
May be caused by dissatisfaction with current in-group
Impermeability is the inability to move between groups and may lead to discrimination against out-groups
Social Cognitive Theory
Suggests that individuals can learn behaviours through reciprocal determinism
Behaviour is connected to society and cognition
Contains four parts
Attention and retention allow for recollection of observed actions for later repetition
Reproduction of observed actions requires self-efficacy (if an individual believes they can reproduce the behaviour)
Motivation determines if the behaviour will be further reproduced based on rewards and punishment
Television and other media provides an outlet for individuals to encounter more models
Stereotypes
Over-simplified and generalized abstractions about in-groups and out-groups
Can be conscious or unconscious
Based on social schema and can therefore be altered based on gatekeepers, accessibility, and priming
Accessibility is the ease of accessing schemas from previous use
Priming determines the recent events influencing schema
Stereotype Threat
Anxiety/apprehension towards a situation where a stereotype may be reinforced/confirmed
May also experience anxiety towards not being able to confirm a positive stereotype
Identity contingencies can increase or decrease this feeling
Illusory Correlations
Cognitive bias causing people to find correlations between unrelated variables
A behaviour of a single individual may be attributed to the entire group
Social Cognition Principles
Humans are cognitive misers (have limited cognitive resources)
Demonstrated through heuristics and dual-process theory)
People engage in controlled (system 2) and automatic (system 1) thinking
Humans seek consistency in behaviour
Self-esteem guides human behaviour (SIT)
Cultural Dimensions
6 aspects of culture as defined by Hofstede
Define a set of values existing on a continuum
Generally shared by members of a culture
Individualism/Collectivism
Individualism is characterized by looser ties between members and a stronger sense of self
Has less distinction between in-group and out-group (universalism)
Inuit culture is more individualistic because of low food-accumulation traditions
Collectivism is characterized by stronger ties between members and a sense of unity within the group
Has inherent exclusiveness because out-group members are considered “others”
Temne culture is more collectivist because of a high food-accumulating community
PDI
The extent to which less powerful members of a group expect and accept the unequal distribution of power
Likely originated from agricultural society where acceptance of leadership is needed to coordinate the community’s lives
High PDI counties have stricter social hierarchies and deference to elders/authority
Low PDI countries have a flatter social structure, low tolerance for inequality, and a willingness to question authority
Enculturation
The process where individuals learn the norms and values of their own culture
Happens through interactions with peers, family, and community
Can occur through direct tuition or observational learning (SCT)
Parents may encourage or deter behaviour based on perceived appropriateness through canalization
Impacts behaviour (music preference, food choice) and cognition (social relationships, gender roles)
Constantly ongoing
Acculturation
Cultural change resulting from interactions between different cultures
Caused by increased globalization as contact between cultures increases
Berry’s model of acculturation includes integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization
The resulting type of acculturation depends on the aims of the dominant and subordinate cultures
Acculturative Stress
Stress associated with being a migrant/immigrant and undergoing acculturation
Risk factors and protective factors can increase or decrease acculturative stress respectively
Research Methods
Observation
Aim to examine how individuals react to specific situations
Generally occur under uncontrolled conditions to allow for participants to make a wide range of choices
Data collected may be quantitative or qualitative
Observations may be covert or overt
Covert observations ensure that observed individuals do not know they are a part of the study
Covert research is thus often done in public spaces so that consent is not required
Overt observations ensure that individuals know that they are being observed and provide informed consent
There is no manipulated independent variable, something common in research on culture
It is difficult to directly manipulate culture to discover its effects
Observations thus provide an important alternative
True Laboratory Experiment
Used to establish a cause and effect relationship between variables
Researcher manipulates the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable
Usually measures are put in place to diminish the impact of confounding variables
Participants are often randomly allocated and the study’s environment is controlled to reduce the impact of extraneous variables, improving internal validity
Results can often be quantified, allowing for researchers to determine if the data is significant
Semi-Structured Interviews
Researchers provide verbal questions to the participants and collect qualitative data
They will have a set of questions (interview schedule) that must be answered although researchers can also ask follow-up questionsÂ
This allows for further depth into the topic examined → important for research on culture since there may be nuance lost in structured interviews that do not provide unique questions for different participants
May also have greater chances of interviewer effects by focusing more or certain topics due to personal biases
The quality of the interview depends somewhat on the experience/abilities of the interviewer
This means that interviews are often not consistent across participants
Having multiple interviewers does limit the effect of individual biases though
Ethics
Undue Stress or Harm
Any stress that exceeds what participants ay experience in everyday life
Small amounts of embarrassment and discomfort may not constitute as undue stress or harm
Researchers have the responsibility of minimizing harm on participants, something achievable through informed consent
Participants are then aware that they may withdraw if they feel uncomfortable
Also ensures participants understand that their data is anonymous and will therefore be more willing to participate and provide accurate data
This is especially important for research on culture since these studies often involve minority groups
These individuals may face discrimination or may not possess a citizenship, increasing the risk of deportation or harm if their information is doxed
Researchers must store data in an anonymous manner to prevent this from occurring and causing harm
Deception
Refers to intentionally misinforming or withholding information from participants
Generally used to conceal the experiment’s true aim and thus avoid demand characteristics
Undermines the concept of informed consent and violates the trust between researchers and participants
May worsen people’s perception of the field of psychology
May increase the chances of participants withdrawing data
Debriefing after the experiment restores trust, provides justification for deception, and ensure no harm occurred
May be necessary to carry out certain research