German and Italian expansion (1933 – 1940)

How did fascist ideology influence Mussolini’s foreign policy between 1933 and 1940?

Fascist ideology, with its emphasis on nationalism, militarism, and the revival of Roman grandeur, led Mussolini to pursue aggressive expansion in Africa and the Mediterranean to boost national pride and distract from domestic problems.

What role did Nazism play in shaping Hitler’s foreign policy aims?

Nazism prioritized racial superiority and Lebensraum (“living space”); Hitler aimed to unite German-speaking peoples, overturn the Treaty of Versailles, and expand eastward to secure territory for the Aryan race.

How did the Great Depression affect Italy’s foreign policy decisions?

Severe economic downturn increased unemployment and social unrest; Mussolini used imperial ventures (e.g., Abyssinia) to stimulate the economy, secure resources, and rally popular support around nationalistic goals.

In what way did economic hardship influence German expansionism in the 1930s?

Economic crisis and high unemployment made Hitler’s promise of reviving industry and creating jobs through rearmament and territorial acquisition appealing to Germans, justifying aggressive policies to obtain resources and markets.

What was the significance of the end of collective security for European diplomacy?

The League of Nations’ failures (e.g., inability to check Japanese and Italian aggression) signaled the collapse of collective security, empowering revisionist states like Germany and Italy to act without fear of united opposition.

How did the policy of appeasement shape diplomatic relations in Europe?

Britain and France’s concessions at Munich (1938) and earlier allowed aggressive actions by Italy and Germany, under the belief that satisfying grievances would maintain peace, but instead emboldened further expansion.

Which diplomatic shifts in the mid-1930s weakened the post-WWI settlement?

The withdrawal of Germany from the League of Nations (1933), the Rome-Berlin Axis (1936), and the lack of firm response to Italy’s Abyssinia invasion undermined treaties and encouraged revisionist powers.

What were Germany’s first challenges to the Versailles Treaty between 1933 and 1938?

Germany reintroduced conscription (1935), remilitarized the Rhineland (1936), formed the Axis with Italy, and annexed Austria (Anschluss, 1938), directly contravening Versailles’ restrictions.

Why did Hitler remilitarize the Rhineland in 1936?

He sought to test Allied resolve, strengthen Germany’s western defenses, and boost domestic morale; the move faced no military response from Britain or France, reinforcing the effectiveness of bold aggression.

What was the significance of the Abyssinian Crisis (1935–1936)?

Italy invaded Abyssinia to expand its empire and secure resources; the League’s weak sanctions and Britain/France’s secret Hoare–Laval Pact negotiations revealed the impotence of collective security.

How did Italy’s conquest of Abyssinia affect international perceptions?

It exposed the League’s inability to curb aggression, encouraged Hitler to accelerate his plans, and damaged Britain and France’s moral authority, undermining confidence in peacekeeping mechanisms.

What motivated Italy’s invasion of Albania in 1939?

Mussolini aimed to consolidate control over the Adriatic, demonstrate Italy’s regional dominance, and divert attention from domestic challenges, completing the Tigresque of Mediterranean expansion.

How did the Pact of Steel (1939) formalize the Italo-German alliance?

Signed in May 1939, it committed Italy and Germany to mutual military support, linking their fates and preparing the groundwork for coordinated aggression in WWII.

What was the impact of the Nazi–Soviet Pact on German expansion plans?

The August 1939 non-aggression pact with the USSR secured Germany’s eastern flank, enabled the joint invasion of Poland, and surprised both Allies and Communists, clearing the path to war.

When did World War II officially begin following German expansion?

On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland; Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, marking the outbreak of WWII in Europe.

How did the international community respond to Germany’s reoccupation of the Rhineland?

Britain and France issued diplomatic protests but took no military action, emboldening Hitler’s regime and illustrating the limits of appeasement.

What measures did the League of Nations take against Italy after Abyssinia?

The League imposed limited economic sanctions excluding oil and coal, failed to close the Suez Canal to Italian shipping, and saw major powers undermine sanctions, rendering them ineffective.

How did Britain and France’s secret negotiations during the Abyssinia Crisis undermine collective security?

They drafted the Hoare–Laval Pact (1935), proposing to partition Abyssinia to appease Italy; public outrage forced its abandonment, but trust in Britain and France was irreparably harmed.

What was the reaction of smaller European states to the collapse of collective security?

Countries like Czechoslovakia and Poland felt isolated and vulnerable, prompting them to seek bilateral guarantees or accommodate German demands to avoid isolation.

How did the international response to the annexation of Austria differ from earlier crises?

Despite violations of the Treaty of Versailles, Britain and France again opted for diplomacy over force at the Berchtesgaden and Bad Godesberg meetings (1938), culminating in the Munich Agreement.

What actions did the international community take in response to the Nazi–Soviet Pact?

Allied powers condemned the pact diplomatically but were unprepared to militarily oppose the German–Soviet invasion of Poland, reflecting deep disunity and strategic confusion.

How did Allied governments react to Italy’s entry into WWII in 1940?

Britain immediately declared war on Italy after its declaration on June 10, 1940, while France was too weakened by German invasion to respond effectively, marking the expansion of the war.

What combined diplomatic actions targeted German and Italian aggression by 1940?

Britain and its Commonwealth imposed naval blockades, froze Axis assets, and bolstered military cooperation with the Soviet Union and USA, recognizing the need for unified resistance.