AP EXAM 1

Psychopathology

The scientific study of psychological disorders

Psychological Disorder

is (1) a psychological dysfunctions within an individual associated with distress, or impairment in functioning and a response that is culturally expected.

Psychological Dysfunction

Dysfunction is broken down in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning

Key components of psychopathology

Distress, Dysfunction and Deviance

Supernatural tradtion

Blevied in supernatural causes of MI. Churches replaced psychicains as healers of mental health. MI periceved as a punishment for sin. Rise of Humanism- empahsizing human welfare, establishment of a few mental hospitals.

The Biological Tradition

Hippocrates. A naturalistic explanation. Separated mental illnesses from religon, magic and superstition. Argued that psychological disorders could be treated like any disease, and was coming up with different methods to cure the disorder. Heredity and environment play very important roles.

Hippocrates Classificatons

Mania, Melancholia, and phrenitis

Galen idea

• assumed that normal brain functioning was related to four bodily fluids or humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm. Blood came from the heart, black bile from the spleen, phlegm from the brain, and choler or yellow bile from the liver. 

• How biles influenced  

• Black bile, Yellow blue and phlegm 

• Saying you need the right amount of bile, and too much or too little, then you will have some diseased  

• BLOOD- sanguine (warm, moist nature), sociable and lively and optimistic 

• Black Bile- melancholic (close and dry nature) colony, introspective and prone to sadness (is it actually a good day?) (prone to depression) 

• Yellow- choleric (hot and dry nature) Ambitiuus aggressive and quick-tempered 

• Phlegm phlegmatic (cold and moist nature) calm passive and sometimes sluggish   

• Too much/too little of the humors lead to diseases 

• Sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic personalities 

The biological treatment

• Physical interventions of electric shock and brain surgery 

• Some still being used 

• Electric shock done to balance hormones 

• A period of try and error e.g., insulin (insulin shock therapy) to stimulate appetite in psychotic patients was found to calm them as well. It sometimes resulted in prolonged coma and death and was therefore abandoned 

• Lots of trial and error 

• Those willing to try out methods, not tested on just tried out on a person 

• Insulin introduced 

• Stimulate appetite in psychotic patients.  

• Found it helps them stay calm and have an appetite to eat 

• However an result in prolonged coma and death and was therefore abandoned 

• Had to weigh options 

• Induced brain seizures to cure schizophrenia. Shock treatment is still in use (electroconvulsive therapy) 

• Shock treatment 

• Still used in szt cases, though not advised 

• The first effective drugs for severe psychotic disorders were developed (in a systematic way) during the 1950s 

• Rauwolfia serpentine  (later renamed reserpine) and another class of drugs called neuroleptics (major tranquilizers) for hallucinations, delusions, agitation and agression 

Consequences of the Biological tradition

• Started in the late 19^th century- influenced by Grey and his colleagues, mental disorders  were viewed as some as yet undiscovered brain pathology and were therfore incurable 

• They argued that only available course of action was to hostialize these patients 

• Grey says no it can not be cured 

• They argued that this can not be cured and instead can only take them out of society  

• Can in big, big deal bc people had to be hospitalized 

The psychological tradtion

brain pathology is the cause of psychological disorders. Plato says two causes of maladaptive behavior, social and cultural infleunces in one’s life and the learning that look place in that environement

Moral therapy (psychological tradtion)

Is not about good or bad, but the treatment an individual should recieve, more to emotional or psychological factors rather than a code of conduct. Includeds treating institutionalized patients as normally as possible in a setting that encouraged and reinforced normal social interaction.

Asylum Reform and Decline of Moral Therapy

MT no longer feasible, as institutions had too many patients for individual attention. Mental Hygiene Movement, led by Dorothea Dix campaigned endlessly for reform in the treatment of insanity. Moved to custodial care and decided that MI was caused by brain pathology, therefore incurable.

Psychodynamic Perspective (psychological treatment)

Sigmund Freud

Linked every human behavior to aggression and sex. Let people talk freely.

Structure of Mind:

ID- self- very selfish, born with it, operates pleasure principle

EGO- Re, ensures we act realistically, morally, operates under the reality principle

SUPEREGO, moral, all the laws of soceityyou have to follow, represents the moral principles instilled into us by parents and culture

IF ALL THREE ARE IN CONFLICT- MENTAL ILLNESS

Free association

Saying whatever comes to mind whilst the therapists helps the client connect the dots

Catharsis

The release of emotional material

Defense mechanisms

unconscious protective processes that keep primitive emotions assocaited with conflicts in check so that the ego can continue coordinating function

Resistance

what the client is unwilling to say or experience

Transference

• how a persons imagines how another person thinks about him or her. E.g. directing feelings of one’s father towards a male therapists 

• Therapy and client, both girls and client has an issue with mother, therapists may feel like she is talking as a mother 

Countertransference

• when the therapists projects feelings to a client 

• Therapists sees client like her little sister 

Insight therapy

• bringing thoughts, feelings and behavior into awareness 

• Evoked all the things to come to surface (subconscious or unconscious) has a lot of trauma and bring that info out 

Casteration anxiety

boys having sexual fantasiaies about their mothers and the fear develops that the father may punish that lust by removing the son’s penis

Oedipus complex

the internal conflict between listing one hand and fear of castration on the other

Electra complex

the same phenomena but in a female child

Psychosexual stages of development  

1. Oral (birth to 1 year)

2. Anal (1-3 years)

3. Phalic (3-6 years)

4. Latency period 

5. Genital 

Oral

1. a babys libido or innate pelasure- seeking energy is focused on the mouth. Underfed elads to pessimistic envoius and suspecious adult. Overfed leads to optimism, gullible and full of admiration 

1. Pleasure seeking behavior always in the mouth 

2. Not done well when they are overfed, leads to optimism guillibe and full of admiration (look at me) 

3. If 1 year of child’s life is not resolved well these are the issues following them into adult hood 

Anal

2. the libido becomes focused on the anus and the child derives great pleasure from defecating. Explusive character- liberal pottty traiing; messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant. Retentive character- harsh potty training; obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority 

1. Potty training  

2. Pleasure in anus 

3. Expulsiive behavior- messy disorganized 

1. No directions of how to potty train 

Phalic

libido (or desire) becomes focused on their genitals as the primary source of pleasure. Oedipus complex in the boyd and electra complex in the girls. Latency. Fixation in men might result in anxiety about sexual performance, the need for reassurance and validation or a tendency to be overaly assertive or aggressive. In women, a desire to dominate men, a riverly with other women or the need for male attention or approval

Latency Period

1. Kid moved to friends no longer worried about sex 

2. Impulses are repressed 

3. Failure to make strong connections feel inaquate insecure or isolated 

Gential

1. Return to genitalia  

2. Want to get in relationships 

3. Dependent on how the other stages went  

Existential humanistic perspective 

Carl Jung and Karen Horney.

Shift to positive psychology

PERSON/CLIENT- therap (a) empatheitc listening (b) unconditonal positive regard © genuineness and congruence

emotion- focused therapy/process- experiental therapy

(a) bonding and awareness (b) evocation and exploration © transformation and generation of alternativeness

Classical Conditioning NTK

• paring an unconditonal stimuluus with a neutral stimulus overtime causes the neutral stimulus to result in an unconditional response

Operate conditioning

• a type of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows the behavior

Observational learning

Central Nervous System

consists of the spinal cord and the brain

Peripheral nervous system

consists of the somatic nervous system, and the autonomic nervious system

Somatic nervous system

Voluntary- relays information to and from skin and skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

Involuntary, relays infromation to internal organs

2 parts

Sympathetic system

Parasympathetic system

Sympathetic system

controls organs in times of stress

parasympathetic nervous system

controls organs when body is at rest

Central Nervous System

processes all information recieved from our sense organs and reacts as necessary (the body’s decision maker

Function of Spinal Cord

Primary function is to faciliate the sending of messages to and from the brain

Neurons

Brain uses an average of 140 billion nerve cells

Transmit information throughout the nervous system

Help relay information from one neuron to another and transmit to the nervous system

Forebrain

The largest part of the brain. Two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex. Volunatry actions

Left

specialize more in verbal processes

Right

focused on perceiving and manipulating images

Midbrain

coordinates sensory input and motor movement.

regulates sleep/wake cycles and processes related to tension and arousal

regulates fundamental drives- eating, drinking

Hindbrain

Regulates autonomic body functions- heart rate, breathing, digestion, ect

Contains the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum

Medulla

Manages breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Pons

Acts as a connector between the cerebellum and medulla: transfers messages between other parts of the brain and the spinal cord

Cerebellum

Manages balance and muscle coordination

cerebum

largest part of the forebrain, dived into left and right hemisphere with four lobes. Parietal, occipital, temporal, and frontal

cerebellum

Regulates voluntary body movements

medulla

controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate and blood pressure

Pons

Acts as a connections btwn the cerebellum and medulla

• transmits messages between other parts of the brain, and the spinal cord; regulates sleep.

Somatic nervous system

controls the muscles, so damage in this area might make it difficult for us to enagr in any voluntart movement, including talking 

The autonomic nervous system

regulates the cardiovascular system (for exmaple, the heart and blood vessles) and the endocrine system (for example, the pituitary, adrenal, thyroid, and gonadal glands) and performs various other functions, including aiding digestion and regulating body temperature 

Cell body-

contains a nucleus, which include DNA and other element a including mitochondria which are involved in supplying energy 

Dendrites

recieves information from other cells

Axon

carries information away from other cells

Axon terminals/ terminal branches

Where information leaves the nerve cell and is passed onto target cells

Neurotransmitters

Where information leaves the nerve cells and is passed on to target cells

How do Neurons pass information

1. Neurotransmitters need to be created and stores 

1. Enzymes in the neurons cell body and axon terminals modify these precursor molecules to produce neurotransmitters 

2. An action potential travels down the axon to the terminal 

3. Through a variety of processes, a neurotransmitter is released into the gap between the two neurons (synaptic cleft) 

4. The neurotransmitter than binds with specific proteins in the next neuron 

5. This either increases (excitatory) or decreased (inhibits) the possibility that the next neuron will create an action potential  

1. Alcohol depressant, coke makes you feel better  

6. The gap between the two neurons must be made nutrual at this point by any of a number of mechanisms including 

1. Making the neurotransmitter inactive 

2. Having the neurotransmitter taken up by the first neuron *referring to as reuptake), and,  

3. Removing the neurotransmitter from the gap between the two neurons 

1. The gap has to be cleared 

Neurotransmitters are classifed in terms of size. 

1. Small molecule neurotransmitters eg, glutamate- excitatory and GABA- inhibitory clam relaxation) glutamate and GABA operate relativelyy independently at a molecular level, but the relative balance of each in a cell will determine whether the neuron is activated (fires ) or not 

• Glutamate, is an excitatory transmitter that “turns on” many different neurons, leading to action 

• Gamma-aminobtyric acid GABA operate relatively indepedently at a molecular level, but the relative balance of each ina cell will determine whether the neuron is activated (fires) or not 

2. NT will be classified according to function 3 catogires 

• Neurotransmitter that meditate communication between neurons, such as glutamate and GABA 

• Neurotransmitters that influence communication of information of neurons (preventing the brain from knowing that one part hurts medicine is blocking t) such as glutamate and GABA 

• NT that influence the communication of information such as opioid peptides in the pain system  

• Influence activity of large population of neurons (serotonin), dopamine  

Glutamate & GABA

direct excitatory or inhibitory communication between neurons. 

Opioid peptides

system-specific modulators (like the pain system). 

erotonin (and others like dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine) 

diffuse modulatory transmitters that influence large populations of neurons and broad states like mood, arousal, and attention. 

GABA 

Function- Calming- calms firing nerves in the CNS. High Levels improve focus, low levels ause anxierty. Also contributes to motor control and vision 

Norepinephrine 

Function- Concentration- affects attention  and responding actions in the brain. Contracts blood vessels, increasing blood flow 

Acetylcholine 

Learning- involved in thought, learning and memory. Activates muscle action in the body. Also assocaited with attention and awakening 

Glutamate 

Memory- involved in learning and memory. Regulates development and creation on nerve contacts 

Serotonin 

Mood- contributes to well-being and happiness. Helps sleep cycle and digestive system regulation. Affected by exercise and light exposure 

Endorphins 

Euphoria- Released during exercise, excitement, and sex. Reduce pain produce well-being 

Adrenaline 

Fight/Flight- produced in a stressful situation. Increases heart rate and blood flow, leading to physical boost and heightened awareness 

Dopamine 

Pleasure- Feelings of pleasure, also addiction, movement and motivation. People repeat behaviors that lead to dopamine release. 

Electroencephalography EEG

to record electrical activity from the scalp related to cortical activity 

Magnetoencephalography meg

measures the small magnetic field gradients exiting and entering the surface of the head that are produced when neurons 

PET- Positron emission

measures blood flow in the brain, which reflects cognitive processing. By measuring changes in blood flow in different brain areas, it is possible to infer which area of the brain are more or less active during particular tasks. No longer a technique of choice 

FMRI-

measure the exact location of structure and activity. Measurements using fmri ARE MADE BY HAVING A PERSON lie on their back inside a large magnet and radio frequency device, which measures changes in blood oxygen levels

Hypothesis FILB

an educated guess or statement to be supported by data 

Research design

The plan for testing the hypothesis. Affected by the questions asked, by the hypothesis and by practical considerations 

Dependent variable

some aspect of the phenomenon that is measured and is expected to be changed or influenced by the independent variable 

Independent variable

The aspect manipulated or thought to influence the change in the dependent variable 

Internal validity

the extent to which the results of the study can be attributed to the independent variable 

External validity

The extent to which the results of the study can be generalized or applied outside the immediate study  

Randomization

• The process of assigning people to different research groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group 

• No choosing  

Confounding variable

• variables that when not controlled, makes the results uninterpretable. Thus, are irrelevant to the hyopthesis being tested but can atler a reasearchs conclusions (e.g. age, sex, religous background, SES) 

• Social economic status 

• No control= influence of results 

Non-experimental methods of psychological research 

OBSERVES AND MEASURES VARIABLES WITHOUT MANIPULATING THEM 

Case study-

an in-depth analysis of the behavior of one person or a small number of people 

Naturalistic observation-

• an in depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting 

• Being among the people to get to know them, not getting info from them but from watching and observing them  

Correlation approach

measure the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables, or factors that have values that can vary 

Epidemiological Research-

- the study of incidence, distribution and consequences of a particular problem or set of problems in one or more populations. Delves into prevalence (the number of people with a disorder at any one time) and incidence ( the estimated number of new cases during specific period) 

Experiment

allows a researcher to establish cause and effect. The researcher can isolate the effects of one or more factors by (1) manipulating the factor of interest and (2) controlling other factors 

true experiment

(involves a control group, and an experimental group, random slecetion, controlled environement, intervention is present)

quasi-experiment

controlled environment, intervention is present) 

• Experimental group

• Control group

• double blind control

• Experimental group- the group recieveing the treatment 

• Control group- the group held constant/ not exposed to the treatment 

• Double blind control- where both participants and researchers are unaware of what group they are in or what treatment they are given

• Clinical trial-

• an experiment used to determine the effectiveness and safety of a treatment or treatments. It is always useful to have a control group 

• Can use on animals first before humans