apes unit 1 earth systems

lithosphere

outermost layer of the Earth — includes crust and solid upper mantle — where subduction occurs

mantle

composed of magma — 2nd layer

athenosphere

main part of plate tectonics - upper part of mantle

plate boundaries

boundaries of tectonic plates; where all tectonic activity occurs: earthquakes, mid-ocean ridges, volcanoes, etc.

divergent plate boundary

• plates move away from each other

• land + land = rift valleys eg. The Great Rift Valley in Africa

• ocean + ocean = mid-ocean ridge eg. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge

convergent plate boundary

• plates go toward each other

• land + land = mountains eg. Himalayas

• ocean + land / ocean + ocean = subduction zone

transform plate boundary

• plates slide past each other

• causes earthquakes

• fault line eg. San Andreas fault

earthquakes

• measured by Richter scale

• caused by pressure buildup & release

Richter scale

• measures earthquakes

• logarithmic

hotspot

• area in the middle of plates where crust is thin and magma comes through

• volcanic islands eg. Hawaii

subduction zone

• occurs on convergent land-ocean/ocean-ocean boundaries

• ocean plates are more dense than land

• results in volcanic activity + trench eg. Mariana Trench

plate tectonics

Earth is compromised of 12 tectonic plates that move very slowly that shift because of convection currents in the mantle

Ring of Fire

area along the Pacific plate that is the most geologically active zone on Earth — 90% of geological activity

weathering

• breaking down of rock

• can be biotic/abiotic

erosion

transportation of weathered rock

deposition

material deposited in a new location

what causes biotic/abiotic weathering

• biotic: tree roots, lichen, organisms

• abiotic: wind, rain, ice wedging

what causes chemical/mechanical weathering

• mechanical: tree roots, wind, water, ice

• chemical: acid mine drainage, enzymes

what are the layers of soil

O Horizon, A Horizon, E Horizon, B Horizon, C horizon, Bedrock

O horizon

• leaf litter

• optional

A horizon

• topsoil

• comp. of partially decomposed organic matter, inorganic material, and living organisms

• zone of biological activity

E Horizon

• optional

• always between O and A or A and B

• in acidic soils

• leaches nutrients from A horizon

B Horizon

• subsoil

• mostly inorganic w/ nutrients leached from A horizon

• rich in Fe + Al + humic compounds

• bad for farming

C Horizon

• weathered parent material

• mostly weathered rock

Bedrock

solid rock

soil

• fully matured has 3 horizons — takes a long time

• rock broken down by weathering

• organisms live and die —> adds nutrients and organic matter

• renewable resource, but slow

why mine

resources limited and distributed unevenly

surface mining

removal of earth on top of resources to access materials

• safer but habitat destruction

subsurface mining

digging underground tunnels

• less habitat destructions but VERY dangerous

overburden

rock and soil over a desired resource/habitat

spoils

disturbed earth left over from removing overburden

ore

rock that contains a valuable resource

gangue

part of the ore that is not the desired resource

tailings

leftover from separating most of the gangue

environmental impacts of surface mining

• disruption of habitat

• increased erosion

• wind/water erosion of toxic waste

• acid mine drainage

• loss of wildlife

Acid Mine Drainage

• when rocks are exposed to the elements acid runoff is created

• majorly affects wildlife — releases acids into water

• rocks react w/ water to make acid runoff; eg. sulfuric acid

lime neutralization

• limestone is a natural base — added to acids to neutralize

• constructed wetlands w/ limestone

open pit mining

• removing material by digging them out of the earth’s surface and leaving an open pit

• surface mining

• overburden dumped back into pit to restore land

• gold, coal, diamonds, etc

• quarry mines

area strip mining

• used where land is flat

• remove overburden → remove mineral → replace overburden

• wavy uneven ground called spoil banks form without remediation

• coal/tar sands

• most environmentally destructive - hard to revegetate b/c of no top soil

• surface

contour strip mining

• hilly/mountainous terrain

• cut terraces following topography

• leaves highwall - not possible to restore

• increased erosion and habitat fragmentation

• used to get fossil fuels

• surface

mountaintop removal

• surface

• blast off the top of a mountain to retrieve minerals

• coal mining

• environmental impacts: air pollution, noise pollution, earthquakes, loss of fragile mountain habitat, topography changes, loss of vegetation

• not possible to remediate

• safer for miners

underground coal mine

• subsurface

• mineshafts and tunnels

• VERY DANGEROUS!!!

• expensive

• less habitat destruction

dangers of subsurface mining

• mine collapse

• air quality - black lung disease

• vent problems - CO/CO2 buildup

Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act

• land must be minimally disturbed

• land must be returned to original state

soil matrix

all components in soil

pores

open spaces - allow air pockets and water to penetrate

biotic parts of soil

• decomposing material

• bacteria

• earthworms + ants

• leaf litter

• soil invertebrates

• decomposers

abiotic parts of soil

• sediment

• nutrients

• water

• air

soil texture

• describes size of particles in soil

• sand

• silt

• clay

• determined by feel

• tells characteristics of soil

loam

mixture of all 3 textures → perfect for farming

porosity

how much empty space + gaps

permeability

how fast does water go through; determined by porosity and structure

acidic soils

• hinder nutrient availability

• increase amount of metals

• increase pesticide runoff

what are seasons caused by

tilt of Earth on its axis — angle of Sun’s rays in relation to the earth

albedo (not genshin)

ability of a material to reflect light

• high = more sun reflected

driving force of climate & uneven heat distribution

convection current

heat rises + cool sinks

Coriolis effect

parts of the earth are moving faster than others → results in curved pathways for wind and ocean currents

• deflects air currents

• creates convection cells

Hadley cell

b/w 0˚and 30˚

Ferrell cell

between Hadley and Polar - pulls winds from both

Polar cell

b/w 60˚and 90˚

climate

annual patterns of temperature and precipitation

terrestrial biome

geographic region of land categorized by a particular combination of average annual temperature, annual precipitation, and distinctive plant growth forms

aquatic biome

an aquatic region characterized by a particular combination of salinity, depth, and water flow

habitat

an area where a particular species lives in nature

Tundra

• no precipitation

• very cold

• low-growing shrubs and mosses

• permafrost → short growing seasons (limiting factor)

Boreal Forest

• moderate rain all year

• short growing seasons

• mostly evergreen trees

• acidic soil

• trees grow slow

• 60˚

• aka taiga/coniferous

Temperate Rainforest

• seasonal rain — still rains a lot, but some months less than others

• moderate temp all year

• Seattle & Japan

• coniferous trees, ferns, and mosses

• light and soil nutrients - limiting factors

Temperate Seasonal Forest

• wet yr round

• distinct 4 seasons

• aka deciduous forest

• high biodiversity; mostly deciduous trees that lose leaves for winter

• limiting factors: cold winters — require adaptations

• animals either migrate, hibernate, or change fur color

• W. Europe 30˚-60˚

Woodland/Shrubland

• rainy + dry season

• mild temps yr round

• aka Chaparral

• scrublike plants ~desert plants

• fire maintained — adapted to and expect fire

• 30˚-60˚ near bodies of water

Temperate Grassland

• rainy and dry season

• distinct seasons

• aka prairie/cold desert

• mostly grasses

• very good soil — used for farming — due to lack of water

• 30-60˚

• Great Plains

Tropical Rainforest

• very hot and rainy all the time

• lots of trees and plants with broad leaves to catch sunlight

• very thin and nutrient poor soil

• rapid decomposition

• near equator

• Amazon Rainforest

Savanna

• seasonal rainfall

• hot year round

• aka tropical seasonal forest

• short broad trees and grasses

• limiting factors of water but very good soil

• south of the equator 30-60˚

Subtropical Desert/Hot Desert

• hot and dry all year

• cacti, succulents, and water retaining plants

• all life has adaptations for retaining water and lack of nutrients

• limiting factors: water and nutrients

• 30˚ above and below equator

where do the currents change direction

off the coast of Greenland

thermohaline circulation

• the circulation of nutrients and heat around the globe

• cold salty water sinks and warm fresh water rises

why deep ocean

things die in the ocean and nutrients collect at the bottom

upwelling

when ocean currents pull cold, nutrient-rich water up from the deep ocean — b/c it hits a continent

• generally on west coast

effects of upwelling

• increase NPP

• very good fishing

surface currents

• driven by wind

• shaped by Coriolis effect and location of continents

• 10% of ocean

deep ocean currents

• 90% of ocean

• move around ocean floor

• driven by density

gyres

• surface ocean and wind currents

• driven by Coriolis effect

• 5 gyres that spin clockwise/counterclockwise

• redistribute heat and nutrients

• impacts climate on land

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

• unusually warm surface of S. Pacific Ocean

• trade winds either stop/go opposite direction/are normal but weak

effects of El Niño

• less rainy in Asia

• less upwelling circa. S. America

• impacts globally

• reduce fishing

La Niña

• cooler pacific ocean

• very strong trade winds

effects of La Niña

• more rain in Asia

• more upwelling

• high NPP

rain shadow effect

when wind blowing from an ocean picks up moisture → hits mountain and goes up → cools and condenses → high rain on windward side + low rainfall of leeward side in rain shadow

windward side

side facing the wind, gets all precipitation, lush vegetation

• tropical rainforest

leeward side

side not facing wind, gets no precipitation, arid

• deserts

elevation/altitude effect on climate

• less soil and nutrients

• temperature decreases

• less oxygen

• more UV rays

what are biomes classified by

precipitation + temperature patterns

troposphere

• densest layer of the atmosphere

• circulation of liquids and gases

• where weather occurs

• 16km

peak ozone layer

• bottom of stratosphere

• absorbs most of Sun’s radiation

stratosphere

• absorbs UV radiation and converts to heat

• 16-50km

mesosphere

• where most meteors burn up

• 50-85km

thermosphere

• blocks harmful X-Ray radiation and where northern lights are produced

• 85-600km

exosphere

• where satellites orbit

• 600-10,000km

atmosphere

• comprised of nitrogen + oxygen + trace gases

• layered

Lakes

• deep

• freshwater

• low/no flow

• prone to accumulation of pollution from fertilizers

• prone to drops in dissolved O2

Ponds

• low/no flow

• fresh

• shallow

• prone to pollution and retaining pollution

Rivers

• fresh

• fast flow

• shallow/deep

• carry water and nutrients over land → deposit in ocean

• carry pollution over long distances

• subject to dams and water diversion