psychology basics

psychology

Psychology

The study of behavior and mental processes.

Goals of Psychology

Describe, Explain, Predict, Control.

Describe

Detailing behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.

Explain

Understanding the reasons behind thoughts and feelings.

Predict

Anticipating behaviors based on understanding.

Control

Using knowledge to manage behaviors.

Applications of Psychology

Mental health, personal relationships, workplace, education, decision making, crisis, consumer behavior.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Personality is shaped by unconscious motives; can be revealed through dreams & memories.

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on observable behavior; behavior is learned through interaction with the environment.

Cognitive Perspective

Studies the mind as an information processor.

Biological Perspective

Emphasizes the biological and physical basis for behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Examines human behavior through the lens of evolution.

Cross-cultural Perspective

Examines how cultural factors influence human behavior.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on the whole individual, emphasizing concepts like free will and self-actualization.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated or controlled by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured and affected by the independent variable.

Operational Definitions

Precise descriptions of the variables and how they will be manipulated.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

Participants exposed to the same conditions, except for the independent variable.

Scientific Method

A controlled method of investigation aiming to establish cause and effect relationships.

Steps in the Research Process

1. Ask questions, 2. Define variables, 3. Develop hypothesis and research, 4. Select design and participants, 5. Conduct experiment, 6. Analyze results.

Informed Consent

Participants must be aware of and agree to the research being conducted.

Belmont Code/Report

1971 ethical standards for research on humans and animals.

Forensic Psychologist

Conducts psychological assessments in legal cases.

Little Albert Experiment

Tested conditioned responses in infants to loud sounds.

Pit of Despair Hypothesis

Tactile comfort and contact explain attachment development.

Stanford Prison Experiment

Investigated abusive behavior and power dynamics in prison settings.

Questionnaire

A method for gathering self-reported attitudes and opinions.

Advantages of Questionnaires

Collect data from a large group quickly and cost-effectively.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires

Participants may misunderstand questions or provide false answers.

Interviews

Oral responses to questions that can be conducted in various formats.

Advantages of Interviews

Clarifies misunderstood questions and assesses respondent understanding.

Disadvantages of Interviews

Time-consuming and expensive.

Case Studies

Study of a single individual to understand their behavior and thoughts.

Advantages of Case Studies

Unique situations not easily replicated.

Disadvantages of Case Studies

Limited population representation.

Phineas Gage

Railway worker whose personality changed after an accident affecting his brain.

Impact of Phineas Gage

Increased interest in brain function and behavior.

Chris Sizemore

Individual with multiple personality disorder due to trauma.

Impact of Chris Sizemore's Case

Increased public awareness of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID).

Structured Interview

Quantitative method with prepared close-ended questions.

Advantages of Structured Interviews

Easy to replicate and quantify; quick data collection.

Disadvantages of Structured Interviews

Lacks flexibility and detail.

Unstructured Interview

Methods featuring open questions based on research topics.

Advantages of Unstructured Interviews

Flexibility in questioning, yielding qualitative data.

Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews

Time-consuming and expensive; biased by the interviewer.

Focus Group Interview

A qualitative method where groups are interviewed together.

Advantages of Focus Group Interviews

Gathers rich qualitative data and diverse perspectives.

Disadvantages of Focus Group Interviews

Confidentiality issues and less reliability.

Semi-Structured Interview

Set questions with the option for follow-up questions.

Advantages of Semi-Structured Interviews

Flexible and allows for deeper exploration of topics.

Disadvantages of Semi-Structured Interviews

Time-consuming and potential bias from the interviewer.

Interviewer Effect

Influence of the interviewer's status on responses.

Naturalistic Observation

Study behavior in its natural setting without intervention.

Advantages of Naturalistic Observation

Obtain actual behavior in real time.

Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation

Time-consuming, less reliable, and limited sample size.

Participant Observation

Researcher joins the group being studied for deeper insights.

Advantages of Participant Observation

Real-time observed behaviors.

Disadvantages of Participant Observation

Risk of losing objectivity.

Controlled Observation

Study behavior in a controlled environment.

Advantages of Controlled Observation

Easy to replicate and analyze data.

Disadvantages of Controlled Observation

Limited validity due to awareness of observation.

Hawthorne Effect

Changes in behavior due to awareness of being observed.

Self-Reported Inventories

Tools to assess individual psychological situations.

Problems with Self-Reported Inventories

Potential for dishonesty about personal state.

Neuron

Specialized cell for receiving and transmitting information.

Neurotransmission

Communication between neurons.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that facilitate neuronal communication.

Cerebral Cortex

Outermost part of the brain associated with higher mental functions.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the two hemispheres of the brain.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for reasoning, social understanding, and voluntary movement.

Parietal Lobe

Involved in self-perception and sensory integration.

Occipital Lobe

Processes visual information.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in language, memory, and emotion.

Midbrain

Channels information from the spinal cord and processes visual and auditory signals.

Thalamus

Relay station for sensory and motor signals.

Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis and regulates various bodily functions.

Amygdala

Integrative center for emotions and motivation.

Hippocampus

Involved in memory formation and organization.

Limbic System

Processes emotions, long-term memories, and motivational behaviors.

Implicit Memory

Includes procedural and emotional conditioning.

Explicit Memory

Divided into semantic and episodic memory.

REM Sleep

Stage of sleep characterized by high brain activity and dreaming.

Sensation

Processing of sensory input from the environment.

Perception

Interpretation of sensory information.

Bottom-up Processing

Identifying stimuli based on immediate environmental input.

Top-down Processing

Using prior experiences and knowledge to identify stimuli.

Photoreceptors

Cells converting light into visual information.

Rods

Receptors that allow vision in low light.

Cones

Receptors responsible for color vision.

Parallel Processing

The brain's capacity to process multiple stimuli at once.

Color Blindness

Visual impairment due to genetic factors.

Sound Waves

Vibrations that travel through air and are processed as sound.

Cochlea

Part of the inner ear responsible for converting sound waves into signals.

Skin Senses

Sense of pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.

Pheromones

Chemical substances used for communication between species.

Generalized Anxiety

Persistent feelings of dread or unease lasting about 3 months.

Phobias

Intense, irrational fears impacting daily life.

OCD

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder characterized by repetitive behaviors.

PTSD

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder involving flashbacks from traumatic events.