psychology basics

Psychology The study of behavior and mental process Goals of Psychology Describe, Explain, Predict, Control Describe Being able to detail behaviors/thoughts and feelings Explain Understand the reasons behind thoughts/ feelings Predict Predict behaviors based on understanding Control Use knowledge to gain control of behaviors Applications of Psychology Mental health, personal relationships, workplace, education, decision making, crisis, consumer behavior Fields studied by Psychologists Biology/anatomy, chemistry, anthropology Psychoanalytic Perspective Personality made by unconscious motives + subconscious can be found through dreams & memories Behavioral Perspective Concerned with observable behavior, behavior is learned through environment Cognitive Perspective Scientific study of the mind as an information processor (Nature vs nurture) Biological Perspective Emphasizes the biological and physical basis for behavior Evolutionary Perspective Scientific discipline that approaches human behavior through the lens that incorporates the efforts of evolution Cross-cultural Perspective Cultural factors influence human behavior Humanistic Perspective Looking at the whole individual, stress concepts such as free will, self-efficacy and self-actualization Independent Variable Manipulated or controlled by the experimenter Dependent Variable Measured and affected by the independent variable Operational Definitions A precise description of the variables and how these will be manipulated Experimental Group Participants are exposed to the independent variable Control Group Exposed to the same condition with the exception of the independent variable Scientific Method A carefully controlled method of investigation aiming to establish a cause and effect relationship by manipulation and controlling certain variables Steps in the Research Process 1. Ask questions or find a problem to solve 2. Define your variables 3. Develop a testable hypothesis and conduct background research 4. Select an experiment design, standardize procedures, and choose participants 5. Conduct experiment and collect data 6. Analyze and share results Ethical Guidelines in Research Rights + well being of participants must be weighed against the study's value to science, Informed consent, Deception must be justified, Allowed to withdraw whenever, Participants must be protected or told about risks, Investigators must debrief participants, Data must remain confidential, Undesirable consequences, the researcher is responsible for detecting or connecting those outcomes Belmont Code/Report 1971 ethical standards for research on humans and animals Forensic Psychologist They do psychological assessments on people in legal cases. They determine whether someone has the mental competence to stand trial Hypothesis of Little Albert Infants have a natural fear of loud sounds, also used to prove that he could use a loud noise to produce conditioned responses in the child when they are shown the stimulus. Hypothesis of Pit of Despair The need for tactile comfort or contact explains how attachment develops. Hypothesis of Stanford Prison The behavior of the guards and inmates of a prison were inherently from abusive behavior and power in prison. Questionnaire A technique for gathering self-reported attitudes, opinions, and/or behaviors of people usually by questioning a representative random sample of people. Advantages of Questionnaires Collect information from a large crowd of people, short amount of time, cost effective. Disadvantages of Questionnaires Misunderstanding the question, people can lie. Interviews Respond orally to questions, can be in person/over the phone/internet. Advantages of Interviews Clarification on misunderstood questions, easier for interviewer to see if respondents understand the question. Disadvantages of Interviews Time consuming and expensive. Case Studies The study of a single individual or just a few individuals in order to describe their situation and determine how they think and behave. Advantages of Case Studies It's a situation you would be unable to replicate (unethical). Disadvantages of Case Studies It's only on a small scale of people and does not represent the population as a whole. Phineas Gage A railway worker who survived an accident where a pole went through his prefrontal cortex, leading to significant changes in his personality. Impact of Phineas Gage's Case Study Created a new desire to learn what the parts of the brain do and how they react differently. Chris Sizemore A girl who had multiple personality disorder due to experiencing multiple traumatic events in her life. Impact of Chris Sizemore's Study Opened Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) to the eye of the public and brought new awareness of the disorder. Structured Interview Quantitative research method where the interview has a set of prepared close-ended questions in the form of an interview schedule. Advantages of Structured Interviews Easy to replicate, easy to quantify, test for reliability, quick and large. Disadvantages of Structured Interviews Not flexible, lack of details. Unstructured Interview Interview does not have a set of questions and instead asks open questions based on a specific research topic. Advantages of Unstructured Interviews Flexible, deviates from schedule, qualitative data, choose his own words, increase validity. Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews Time consuming, expensive, interviewer can influence response. Focus Group Interview A qualitative approach where a group of respondents are interviewed together to gain a depth understanding of social issues. Advantages of Focus Group Interview Qualitative data, collective experiences, diversity of thought, common experience, cost-effective. Disadvantages of Focus Group Interview Hard to keep confidential, less reliable, lack of validity. Semi-Structured Interview The interviewer prepares a set of questions to be answered by all interviewees; additional questions may be asked during the interview to clarify or expand certain issues. Advantages of Semi-Structured Interview Answer more on their terms, flexible, explore based on answers, reliable and qualitative data. Disadvantages of Semi-Structured Interview Data can be shaped by interviewer, time-consuming, skill of interviewer is important. Interviewer Effect Face to face interviews raise methodological problems stemming from the fact that interviewers themselves are role players, and their perceived status may influence the replies of respondents. Naturalistic Observation A research method in which the researchers study behavior in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation. Advantages of Naturalistic Observation Observed flow of situation, study total situation, actual behavior in real time. Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation Small sample sizes, less reliable, time-consuming, no control of outside variables. Participant Observation A variant of natural observations where the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives. Advantages of Participant Observation Observe flow of situation, study total situation, actual behavior in real time. Disadvantages of Participant Observation Difficult to get time or privacy for recording, researcher becomes too involved, may lose objectivity and become biased. Controlled Observation A research method for studying behavior in a carefully controlled and structured environment. Advantages of Controlled Observation Easily replicated, data is easier and quicker to analyze. Disadvantages of Controlled Observation Lack of validity because patients know they are being watched. Hawthorne Effect Individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. Self-Reported Inventories Tools that give a general idea of what situation you are in and what you and your psychologist need to focus on. Problems with Self-Reported Inventory People can lie to make themselves sound better or worse than they actually are. Neuron A specialized cell that receives information and transmits it to other cells. Neurotransmission Two or more neurons communicating with one another. Neurotransmitters Chemical messengers that carry signals between neurons and other cells. Process of Neurotransmission Exchange of ions; sodium ions rush into the cell and potassium ions rush out, creating an electrical impulse that races down the axon. Excitatory neurotransmitters Increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters Decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential. Cerebral cortex The outermost part of the brain associated with our highest mental capabilities, characterized by its wrinkly structure to allow for new connections as we grow. Corpus callosum Connects the brain hemispheres. Frontal lobe Responsible for reasoning, social understanding, executive functioning, voluntary muscle movement, and learning and recalling information. Parietal lobe Involved in self-perception, sensory integration, learned movements, and location awareness. Occipital lobe Handles spatial processing, color processing, distance and depth perception, object and face recognition, and information sharing. Temporal lobe Associated with language, memory, emotion, senses, and visual recognition. Hindbrain Connects the spinal cord to the brain and is responsible for the most basic level of being. Pons Coordination center for signals that flow between the hemispheres; acts as a bridge between the brainstem and cerebral cortex. Cerebellum Regulates motor behavior and particular automatic movements. Medulla Performs vital functions outside conscious control, such as heartbeat. Spinal cord Conveys sensory information to the brain and carries information generated in the brain to other parts of the body. Midbrain Processes visual and auditory signals, movement of head and body, and acts as a channel for the spinal cord transmitting information. Thalamus Relay station of all incoming motor and sensory information (except smell); acts like a gate that opens for certain important information. Hypothalamus Maintains homeostasis by reacting to messages to keep the body in a stable internal balance. Amygdala Integrative center for emotions, emotional behavior, and motivation. Hippocampus Responsible for the formation, organization, and storage of new memories, and connecting certain sensations and emotions to these memories. Limbic system Responsible for processing and regulating emotions and memories, motivations, long-term memory, sense of smell, survivalist behaviors, and reactions to stressful situations. Implicit memory Includes procedural memory, priming, and emotional conditioning. Explicit memory Divided into semantic (concepts and facts) and episodic (events and experiences) memory. Sleep cycle duration Takes approximately 90 minutes. REM sleep Characterized by high brain activity and the occurrence of dreams. Sensation The process of sensory receptor processing your external environment. Perception How you perceive these sensations and signals. Bottom-up processing Identifying a stimulus based on the current environment; it's your primary reaction to it. Top-down processing Using experience and knowledge from beforehand to identify a stimulus. Photoreceptors Cells that turn visible light into visual information. Rods Help you see at nighttime or when it's dark. Cones Help us focus and see color. Parallel processing Multitasking ability that allows our brain to handle many aspects simultaneously. Color blindness A condition caused by genes. Sound waves Funnel into our outer ear, then into our ear canal where they turn into vibrations. Outer ear Funnels sound waves into the ear. Middle ear Transmits vibrations from the outer ear into the inner ear. Inner ear Translates sound into something we understand. Eustachian tubes Open to equalize the pressure in your ear to the outside. Cochlea Triggers the auditory nerve allowing us to understand sound waves. Skin senses The four senses: pressure, warmth, cold, and pain. Cause of pain Intense or damaging stimuli; it's our body's way of warning the brain that damage is being done. Not feeling pain Problematic because you won't feel aches from staying in a position too long, leading to future health problems. Louder sounds Taller wavelengths indicate louder sounds. Higher pitched sounds Tighter wavelengths indicate higher pitch. Auditory nerve Triggered by the cochlea to allow us to understand sound. Colorblind gene Inherited from a chromosome that may cause colorblindness. Energy and Chemical Senses Taste and smell are chemical; it's when a chemical message is sent to the brain to process. Taste Sensation Steps The taste buds on your tongue will pick up a flavor and send a signal to the brain. Taste Sensations Bitter, sweet, salty, umami, sour. Evolutionary Role of Taste It allowed our ancestors to determine if something is bad or not. Factors Affecting Taste Receptors Aging, smoking, medication, malnutrition, alcohol, illness, nerve damage, diseases that affect the nerves. Smell Sensation Steps Olfactory receptor cells on the mucus membrane have small hair-like receptors that bond with odor molecules in the air; once bound, chemical changes within the cell result in signals being sent to the olfactory bulb, and information is sent to regions of the limbic system and primary olfactory cortex to be interpreted. Scent and Memory There is a hotline that runs between the area of the brain that gets information from the nose and the brain limbic system that associates with memory and emotion. Pheromones Chemical substances produced and released into the environment by an animal, used to elicit a response from other species. Generalized Anxiety You feel dread or unease for about 3 months. Phobias Having intense fear of something, and the worrying effects your daily life. OCD Obsessive compulsive disorder; you feel like you must do a task over and over until it feels correct. PTSD People who witnessed traumatic events having flashbacks to traumatic events. Depression Being in a state of low mood. Bipolar Disorder Large mood swings either chronically or acute. Dissociative Identity Disorder The separation of personalities. Schizophrenia Feeling that there are voices in your head and/or hallucinations.