203 Test 1

What is grammar?

The system of rules governing how words change form and combine to form meaningful sentences.

Grammar hierarchy

Minimally: word → phrase/constituent → clause → sentence

Clause vs sentence

Clause: contains a subject + verb.
Sentence: a complete grammatical unit containing one or more clauses.
Not all clauses can stand alone as sentences.

Membership of a word category

Established by typical use, but can change depending on context.

What is an open class?

A word class that readily accepts new words and loses words as language changes/develops (content/lexical words). Main categories: N, V, Adj, Adv.

What are content words?

Words carrying the main meaning of a sentence. Main categories: N, V, Adj, Adv.

What is a closed class?

A word class that rarely accepts new words or loses words (function/grammatical words). They show the grammatical structure between other words. Main categories: Det, Pron, Prep, Aux V.

What are function words?

Words that provide grammatical structure and organise/link content words; they carry little lexical meaning. Main categories: Det, Pron, Prep, Aux V.

Content vs function words

Content: main meaning + open class.
Function: grammatical structure + closed class.

What is a morpheme?

The smallest unit in a language with meaning or grammatical function.

Simple vs compound vs complex words

Simple: one free morpheme (bird).
Compound: 2+ free morphemes (black + bird).
Complex: free morpheme(s) + bound affix(es) (blackbird + -s).

Free vs bound morpheme

Free: can stand alone (cat).
Bound: must attach to a host (-s, -er, re-).

What is a root morpheme?

The core morpheme that cannot be broken into smaller meaningful parts; other morphemes can be added to it and create more complex forms.

What is a stem?

Any form that another morpheme can be added to; it may already contain multiple morphemes.

Root vs stem

Root: core, indivisible morpheme.
Stem: a form to which another morpheme can be added. A root can also be a stem.

What are morphological “false friends”?

Similar-looking parts that aren't actually morphemes because they contribute no separate meaning: bigger = big + -er, but bitter ≠ bitt + -er.

What is an endocentric compound?

A compound where the whole word is a type of its head. Usually modifier + head, with the head on the right and determining word class. Stress usually falls on the modifier: BLACKbird.

What is an exocentric compound?

A compound that is not a type of either of its parts and has no explicit head: hotdog ≠ a type of dog.

How can you test endocentric vs exocentric compounds?

Ask: “Is the compound a type of its second morpheme?” Yes → endocentric; No → exocentric.

What is affixation?

Adding a bound morpheme (affix) to a root/stem to create a different form or new word.

Prefix vs suffix vs circumfix

Prefix: before (un-happy).
Suffix: after (happy-ness).
Circumfix: two parts around the stem functioning as one affix (ge-spiel-t).

What are the 4 criteria for assigning word classes?

Morphological, morphosyntactic, syntactic, semantic.

Morphological criterion

What affixes can attach to the word? cat → cats (-s) → evidence for N.

Morphosyntactic criterion

What grammatical inflections/forms can the word take? near → nearer → nearest → evidence for Adj.

Syntactic criterion

Where can the word occur and what can occur around it? the big cat → Det + Adj + N → evidence for Adj.

Semantic criterion

What does the word mean/do? Naming → likely N; quality → likely Adj; action → likely V.

What are irregular members of word classes?

Words that belong to a word class but do not follow its normal grammatical patterns.

Types of irregular word forms

Older irregular: mouse → mice, run → ran
Suppletive: completely different forms (be → am/is/was)
Defective distribution: restricted forms/positions (*is resembling)
Borrowed: retain forms from source language (cactus → cacti).

Central vs peripheral word class members

Central: shows the typical semantic, morphological and syntactic behaviour of its class. tall = central (tall tree, very tall, taller).
Peripheral: belongs to the class but has restrictions on its behaviour. asleep = peripheral (is asleep ✓; asleep cat ✗)

3 criteria for assigning word class

Definition: meaning.
Distribution: where it occurs / what surrounds or modifies it.
Shape: what affixes/inflections it can take.

What is inflection?

A change in word form that expresses grammatical information without creating a new lexical word, e.g. tense, number or case.

What inflections can identify nominals (nouns)?

Plural: cat → cats.
Possessive: cat → cat’s.
May also have irregular/zero plurals: geese, sheep.

What inflections can identify verbs?

Non-past, past, -ing and past participle forms: write → writes, wrote, writing, written.

How can word stress help identify word class?

Stress can distinguish otherwise identical forms: EXport = N; exPORT = V. All content words must have primary stress.

What is the substitution test?

Replace a word with a word of known class in the same position. If grammatical, this provides evidence they belong to the same class.
I walk every day → I learn every day ✓ (V) | I sad every day ✗ (Adj) → walk = V

What is a noun?

A word that names/labels a person, place, object, idea, quality, etc. Nouns form an open lexical class.

What is derivation?

Creating a new word from an existing word.

How can nouns be derived?

Affixation: add an affix (act → action).
Conversion: change word class without changing form (green Adj → N).

What is nominalisation?

Turning a word from another word class into a noun or noun-like form. E.g. run (V) → some running is good (N-like/gerund).

What is a gerund?

An -ing verb form that functions noun-like while retaining some verbal properties.

Why are gerunds grammatical hybrids?

They can function like nouns but retain verb-like properties.
Some running is good → noun-like position
Running quickly → verb-like because it is modified by the adverb quickly.

What is a nominal?

Any word, phrase or clause that functions like a noun in a sentence.

What is a nominal clause?

A clause that functions like a noun/noun phrase in the larger sentence, occurring where a noun or pronoun could normally occur (e.g. subject or object). It can have verbal structure internally while functioning noun-like as a whole.
e.g. [Walking the dog] is good for you → [It] is good for you.

What is a nominal adjective?

An adjective that functions noun-like, usually referring to a group of people based on their shared characteristics.
e.g. the elderly, the rich → “elderly/rich people”

How can you test for a nominal clause?

Substitution test: replace the clause with a noun/pronoun. If it still works, this provides evidence it functions nominally.

Pre-modifier vs head vs post-modifier

Pre-modifier: modifiers before the head
Head: main noun
Post-modifier: modifiers after the head.
[the deep] + [tunnels] + [under the harbour].

What do noun modifiers do?

They narrow the interpretation/reference of a noun, making it more specific.

What is a count noun?

A noun referring to something that can be counted as individual units. Has singular/plural forms. Singular count nouns can be preceded by a/an: a cat → cats.

What is a non-count (mass) noun?

A noun referring to something treated as an amount rather than separate countable units (furniture, water, fun, sugar).

Can’t take plural -s, follow a/an, or a number directly.
Examples: *I make furnitures, *I have a fun, *I swept 5 dusts

How are non-count nouns quantified?

With an amount/unit expression: some furniture, five pieces of furniture, a cup of tea.

What is ellipsis?

The omission of word(s) whose meaning is understood from context: two coffees = two cups of coffee; three sugars = three spoons of sugar.

Can a noun be both count and non-count?

Yes. Some peripheral nouns can be either depending on reference: some chocolate (mass) vs two chocolates (count). Central nouns can’t do this.

Common vs proper noun

Common: labels a whole class/category (house, human). Usually not capitalised.

Proper: labels a unique/specific person, place, organisation or thing (Ronald, Auckland). Capitalised; can take titles. Usually has limited use with determiners and plurals because it already identifies something specific.

Can proper nouns behave like common nouns?

Sometimes, through close association: three Picassos = three works by Picasso; three Sarahs = three people named Sarah.

Concrete (tangible) vs abstract (intangible) noun

Concrete: can be perceived through the senses (cat, music).

Abstract: has no physical existence (love, idea, motivation).

What is a verb?

A word that expresses an action, event/process or state and forms the core of a clause.

What does the verb control in a clause?

Semantically: what kinds of participants/arguments make sense with the verb → their semantic/theta roles.

Structurally: how many arguments the verb requires/allows and where they occur in the clause → its argument structure/valency.

What is a dynamic (action/event) verb?

A verb that describes an activity, event or process that takes place over time.
Can involve physical actions (walk), mental activities (think), or processes (succeed).
Dynamic events have a beginning and end and may be completed (they ate) or ongoing (they are eating).

What is a stative verb?

A verb that shows a state of being, feeling, thought, or possession instead of a physical action.

Tell us how things are, not what things do.

Not usually used in progressive -ing forms (if used, usually indicates a temporary state: He is being silly)

Emotions and feelings: love, hate, like, want, prefer
Thoughts and opinions: know, believe, think, understand
Possession and measurements: have, own, belong, cost
Senses and perceptions: hear, see, smell, taste, seem

What are the obligatory parts of a minimal English clause?

Nominal (phrase/clause) + Verb. Both positions must be filled: The cat sleeps.

What is a predicate?

The verb + everything following it that tells us what is being said about the subject. Minimally, it may contain just the verb (John [disappeared]) or include what undergoes the action and additional information such as where, how or when.

How do imperatives fit the nominal + verb requirement?

In an imperative (command), the subject is not expressed but is implicitly second-person you: Go! → [you] go!

What are the five main forms of English verbs?

1. Infinitive/base: (to) go

2. Present: goes → typically -s for 3rd-person singular

3. Past: went → regular verbs typically -ed

4. Progressive participle: going → -ing

5. Perfect/past participle: gone → often -en/irregular; regular verbs typically -ed

How does English express future time without a future tense marker?

Through modal auxiliaries, constructions, and time adverbials/context, e.g. will leave, is going to leave, leaves tomorrow.

Past tense vs perfect participle

Past tense carries tense: She poked him.

Perfect participle is not tense-marked and occurs with an auxiliary: She has poked him. Irregulars show the distinction clearly: went (past) vs gone (perfect).

Bare vs to-infinitive

Bare: verb without to (go) → occurs after modals (can go, must leave).
To-infinitive: to + V (to go) → occurs after verbs that require/allow to → want to go, decide to leave, hope to win.

Time vs tense

Time = when an event actually occurs → past, present, future. This is a semantic/conceptual distinction.

Tense = the grammatical marking/form of time on the verb used to locate an event in time.

A tense form does not always match the actual time reference.
a. I leave tomorrow. → present/non-past tense, future time
b. I left yesterday. → past tense, past time

How can English express time without tense inflection?

Through time adverbials/context: I put it there yesterday/every day.

Future: through auxiliaries/constructions (will leave, is going to leave).

Lexical vs auxiliary verb

Lexical: carries the main meaning and is the main verb.
Auxiliary: supports/modifies the lexical verb and adds grammatical information such as tense, aspect or modality. Can’t stand alone and occur before the lexical verb.

How can you identify a lexical verb in a verb sequence?

It is the last verb in the verb sequence; preceding verbs are auxiliaries: might have seen. It may also be the only verb in the predicate.

What are the two types of auxiliaries?

Primary auxiliaries: BE, HAVE, DO: can function as either auxiliary or lexical verbs and can inflect.

Modal auxiliaries: can, could, may, might, will, would, should, must, ought to, etc

Where is tense marked in a verb sequence?

On the first verb.
No auxiliary → lexical verb carries tense (she writes).
Auxiliary present → first auxiliary carries tense (she has written; she has been writing).

How can HAVE, BE and DO be lexical or auxiliary?

Lexical: carry their own meaning (I have a cat; I am here; I do linguistics).
Auxiliary: support another verb (have eaten; is eating; did eat).
Test: helping another verb → auxiliary; carrying main meaning → lexical.

What are modal auxiliaries?

Always auxiliaries.

Add meanings such as ability, permission, possibility, probability, certainty/obligation.

Occur before the lexical verb and first when multiple auxiliaries occur.

Can, may, might, could, should, would, will, must, etc.

How do modal auxiliaries relate to tense/time?

Can’t be inflected.

Time reference depends on the modal and context/time expressions: I can/might/should/could get it (now/next week/at 3 o'clock)