AP Psych Midterm Exam

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

social influence theory of hypnosis

hypnosis is a result of normal consciousness (perhaps under selective attention) and social influence

Hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role

An authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people to perform unlikely acts

Hilgard's divided consciousness theory of

hypnosis

a split between different levels of consciousness - hypnosis has caused a split in awareness

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm

pineal gland

produces melatonin

melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

Freud's wish fulfillment theory

Dreams provide a psychic safety value - expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content - a hidden meaning

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)

information processing theory

dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories

physiological function theory

regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways

neural activation theory

REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories

cognitive development theory,

dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development- their knowledge and understanding

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

substance use disorder/drug dependence

Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruptions and or physical risk

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

tolerance/neuroadaptation

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

Withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug or behavior

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

alcohol use disorder

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

expectancy effect

People's response to a substance on the basis of their beliefs about it, even if it contains no active ingredient. shows how cognitive as well as physiological factors are involved in drug reaction and dependence.

barbiturates (tranquilizers)

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

Cocane

A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporary increased alertness

Methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

Ecstasy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Hallicinogens

Psychedelic (mind manifesting) drugs such as LSD that distorts perceptions and evoke sensory images

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

William James

stream of consciousness, with each moment flowing into the next

Ernest Hilgard

famous for his hypnosis research & the theory "hidden observer". Believed hypnosis invovles not only social influences but also a special state of dissociation

Sigmund Freud

proposed that dreams provide a psychic saftey value that discharges otherwise unacceptable feeling. He thought that most adult dreams could be traced back to erotic wishes.

5 sleep Theories

1. Sleep Protects

2. sleep helps us recuperate

3. sleep is for making memories

4. sleep also feeds creative thinking

5. sleep may play a role in the growth process

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

cocktail party effect

Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd

inattention blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time

Webster's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

telepathy

Communication from one mind to another without speech, writing, or other sensory means

clairvoyance

the power to see things that cannot be perceived by the senses, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire

precognition

perceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome

psychokinesis

ability to move objects with one's mind, "mind over matter"

Wavelength

the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

Intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

parellel processing

The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.