General Biology Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards covering biological macromolecules, lipid structures, water chemistry, chemical bonds, pH, characteristics of life, and course concepts from EBIO 1210.

Monosaccharide

A simple sugar molecule containing 5 or 6 carbon atoms per molecule, serving as the basic subunit for carbohydrates (e.g., glucose and fructose, with the molecular formula $\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6$).

Disaccharide

A carbohydrate composed of two monosaccharides covalently joined by a glycosidic linkage formed through a condensation reaction (e.g., sucrose, lactose, and maltose).

Polysaccharide

A large carbohydrate polymer composed of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides bonded through glycosidic linkages, which can be linear (such as cellulose) or branched (such as starch and glycogen).

Glycosidic Linkage

A covalent bond formed between monosaccharide subunits via a condensation reaction to form disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Lactase

An enzyme in the small intestine that breaks down lactose into two monosaccharides: glucose and galactose.

Lactase Persistence

The continued biosynthesis of lactase after weaning into adulthood, allowing approximately $35\%$ of adult humans to digest dairy products.

Lactose Intolerance

A condition resulting from the post-weaning decrease in lactase production seen in $65\%$ of humans, where undigested lactose in the large intestine creates an osmotic gradient drawing in water and is fermented by gut bacteria into gases like methane, carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$), and hydrogen ($\text{H}_2$).

Sucralose

An artificial sweetener (Splenda) that human digestive enzymes cannot bind to, rendering it zero-calorie; research indicates it can increase gut epithelium permeability and inflammatory gene expression.

Hydrophobic

Property of a substance that repels water due to having many nonpolar covalent bonds, preventing the formation of hydrogen bonds with water molecules.

Hydrophilic

Property of a substance that attracts water, consisting of polar covalent or ionic molecules that readily form hydrogen bonds with water.

Amphipathic

Describing a molecule that contains both hydrophilic (water-attracting) and hydrophobic (water-repelling) regions, such as a phospholipid.

Fat (Triacylglycerol)

A lipid constructed from one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids linked through condensation reactions that release 3 water ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$) molecules.

Saturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid hydrocarbon chain containing only single bonds between carbon atoms, allowing the molecules to pack tightly together and remain solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid hydrocarbon chain containing one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, creating a kinked structure that prevents tight packing and results in a lower melting temperature.

Phospholipid

An amphipathic lipid consisting of a hydrophilic head (glycerol and phosphate group) and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails, which spontaneously forms bilayers in aqueous environments.

Steroid

A type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton composed of four fused rings, functioning in membrane structure or cellular signaling (e.g., cholesterol, cortisol, and estrogen).

Metacognition

The process of 'thinking about your thinking,' which involves monitoring, evaluating, and reflecting on one's own comprehension and learning strategies.

Self-Regulated Learning

The ability of a learner to create a study plan, monitor personal progress, and adapt learning actions based on performance data.

Characteristics of Cellular Life

The five defining properties of cellular life: 1) containing heritable genetic information (e.g., DNA), 2) possessing a genetic expression system, 3) being enclosed by a cell membrane, 4) generating energy (e.g., ATP), and 5) reproducing.

SpudCell

A synthetic cell created on July 2, 2026, from nonliving components, consisting of a microscopic water droplet enclosed by a fatty membrane containing chemicals and snippets of DNA encoding 36 genes.

Hydrothermal Vent Hypothesis

A hypothesis proposing that life originated in hydrothermal vents where organic molecules formed through chemical reactions between hydrogen ($\text{H}_2$) and carbon dioxide ($\text{CO}_2$).

Atom

A single neutral particle of matter.

Molecule

A neutral particle formed by two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.

Ion

A single non-neutral particle or bonded group of atoms carrying a net electrical charge; positively charged ions are cations and negatively charged ions are anions.

Electronegativity

A measure of an atom's ability to attract shared electrons toward itself within a covalent bond.

Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons between their nuclei.

Polar Covalent Bond

A covalent bond formed between two atoms with different electronegativities, causing unequal electron sharing and resulting in partial positive ($\delta^+$) and partial negative ($\delta^-$) charges on the atoms.

Ionic Bond

A chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of one or more valence electrons from one atom to another, producing oppositely charged ions.

Hydrogen Bond

A relatively weak chemical attraction that continually breaks and reforms between a partially positive hydrogen atom in a polar covalent bond and another electronegative atom.

Van der Waals Interactions

Temporary, transient molecular attractions that require molecules to be extremely close together, such as the mechanism allowing gecko toe spatulae to adhere to wall surfaces.

Acid

An ion or molecule that releases a proton ($\text{H}^+$) into a solution.

Base

An ion or molecule that acquires or accepts a proton ($\text{H}^+$) from a solution.

pH

A logarithmic measurement of proton concentration defined by the equation $\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$.