AP Psychology Review

Structuralism

Structuralism

Used introspection (the act of looking inward to examine mental experience) to determine the underlying structures of the mind Wilhem Wundt

Functionalism

The need to analyze the purpose of behavior Studied how behaviors help the mind adapt or survive William James

Evolutionary Perspective

Focuses on Darwinism Based on inherited traits (we all act a way because our ancestors had to act a certain way and these behaviors helped their society survive) Genes

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on motivation The belief that we all strive to be our best (we all want to achieve self actualization and reach our full potential) Think that people most need acceptance and love

Biological

All feelings and behaviors have a biological root Scientifically based Brain

Cognitive

Focus on how people think (the way we encode or recall information) Perception

Behavioral

Focuses on observable behaviors and puts feelings and emotions to the side Conditioning and learning Learned

Psychoanalytical/Psychodynamic

Behavior springs from the unconscious (the part of the mind that dictates one's life and drives one's behavior

Sociocultural

Much of someone's behavior and feelings are dictated by the culture in which they live Studies how culture impacts the way people behave Society

Biopsychosocial

Mix of biological perspective

Mary Calkins

First female president of the APA

Charles Darwin

Natural selection and evolution; evolutionary perspective

Dorothea Dix

Reformed mental institutions in the US

Stanley Hall

First president of the APA First journal

William James

Father of American psychology Functionalism

Wilhem Wundt

Father of Modern Psychology Structuralism

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to earn a PhD

Experiment

Advantages: the researcher is able to control variables to establish cause and effect Disadvantage: it is difficult to generalize to the entire population

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter The "cause"

Experimental Group

The group that received the treatment (part of the independent variable)

Control Group

The group that received the placebo (part of the independent variable) Serves as a baseline The group not exposed to the independent variable

Placebo Effect

Show behaviors associated with the experimental group

Double-Blind Procedure

An experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter are aware of which condition people are assigned to

Dependent Variable

The measured variable "The effect" of what is being tested

Operational Definition

A clear

Confounding Variables

Something that could cause a change in the dependent variable other than the independent variable Ex: experimenter bias and placebo effect

Random Assignment

Assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random Minimizes bias

Validity

The test earns accurate results The test measures what it's supposed to

Reliability

The test gets the same results every time

Naturalistic Observation

Advantage: real world validity (watching people in their own setting) Disadvantage: no cause and effect can be proven "Watching" people in their natural environment; experimenter doesn't manipulate anything

Correlation

Advantage: identify the relationship between two variables Disadvantage: cannot prove cause and effect Correlation Coefficient (r): the closer the absolute value is to 1

Positive Correlation

The variables vary in the same direction

Negative Correlation

The variables vary in opposite directions `

Case Study

An in-depth

Descriptive Stats

shape of the data

Measures of Central Tendency

Mean: the average; used in normal distribution Median: the middle number; used in skewed distribution Mode: the number that occurs most often

Normal distribution

68% of data contained in one standard deviation from the mean 95% of data contained in two standard deviations from the mean 99% of data contained in three standard deviations from the mean

Inferential Statistics

Establishes significance (meaningfulness) of data Significant Results: the results were not due to chance

Ethical Guidelines (APA)

1. No coercion (people are doing it of their own accord)

2. Informed consent (if deception is used

Neuron

The basic cell of the nervous system

Dendrites

Detect messages from other neurons

Soma

Cell body (includes the nucleus) Keeps neurons healthy

Axon

Action potential travels down this Announces messages to other neurons

Myelin Sheath

Speeds up signal down the axon

Terminals

Release neurotransmitters Send signals onto the next neuron

Synapse

Gap between neurons The fluidy area

Action Potential

The movement of sodium and potassium ions across a membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon

All or None Law

Stimulus must trigger the action potential past its threshold

Refractory Period

Neuron must rest and reset before it can send another action potential

Sensory Neurons

Receive signals

Afferent Neurons

Go at the brain Accept Signals

Motor Neurons

Send signals

Efferent Neurons

Signal exits

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Everything except the brain and the spinal cord All the nerves not encased in bone Divided into somatic and autonomic

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary movement Uses motor (efferent) neurons

Autonomic Nervous System

Involuntary Movement Controls the automatic functions of the body Divided into 2 categories: the sympathetic and parasympathetic

Sympathetic Nervous System

Arouses the body for fight or flight Automatically accelerates the heart rate and breathing

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Established homeostasis after a sympathetic response Automatically slows down the body after a stressful event Heart rate and breathing slow down

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released in the synaptic gap

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter Helps calm people

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter Excites people; linked to schizophrenia

Dopamine

Reward and movement Deals with motor movement and alertness Lack of dopamine has been linked to Parkinson's

Serotonin

Moods and emotion Involved in mood control Lack of serotonin has been linked to clinical depression

Acetylcholine

Deals with motor movement and memory Too much causes people to have lots of energy and be spastic Too little causes people to be forgetful; has been linked to Alzheimer's disease

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

Sympathetic nervous system arousal

Endorphins

Regulate pain control and happiness

Agonist

Drug that makes neurons fire Mimics a neurotransmitter

Antagonist

Drug that blocks a neurotransmitter Stops neural firing

Reuptake

Unused neurotransmitters are taken back up into the sending neuron SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) block reuptake and can be used to treat depression

Hindbrain

The oldest part of the brain The most primitive part of the brain Information is processed outside of our awareness without any conscious effort

Cerebellum

Coordinates movement "little brain" In charge of muscle movement

Medulla

Controls vital organs (heart rate

Pons

Controls sleep and arousal

Reticular Formation

Controls attention Responsible for arousal

Forebrain

Controls higher brain thought processes The anterior portion of the brain; the part of the brain that develops from the anterior part of the neural tube

Amygdala

Part of the limbic system 2 neural clusters that are linked to emotion Controls fear and anger

Hippocampus

Part of the limbic system Learning and memory matcher

Thalamus

The brain's sensory switch board Located at the top of the brain stem Directs messages to the sensory areas and transmits them to the cerebellum and medulla

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus Directs eating

Broca's Area

Controls language expression Damage prevents the ability to produce speech

Wernicke's Area

Controls language reception Damage creates and inability to comprehend language Usually located in the left temporal lobe

Cerebral Cortex

Outer portion of the brain Controls higher order thought processes

Occipital Lobe

Located in the back of the head Includes the visual areas

Frontal Lobe

Controls decision making

Parietal Lobe

Located on the top of the head Includes the sensory cortex

Temporal Lobe

Located on the sides of the head Contains the auditory areas

Somatosensory Cortex

Map of our sensory receptors The area at the front of the parietal lobe that registers and processes body sensations

Motor Cortex

An area at the rear of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements

Corpus Callosum

Bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres Sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures

Lateralization

The brain has some specialized features Different hemispheres of the brain are in charge of different things

Split Brain Experiments

Done by Sperry and Gazzanaga Images shown to the right hemisphere will be processed in the left; patient can verbally identify what they saw

Brain Plasticity

The brain can "heal" itself Decreases with age

Nature vs Nurture

Study of if a person is affected more by their genes or their environment

Twin Studies

Identical Twins (monozygotic) Fraternal Twins (dyzygotic) Helps determine if something is caused by genes or environment If something's caused by genes

Endocrine System

Sends hormones throughout the body

Pituitary Gland

Controlled by the hypothalamus Releases growth hormones Monitors

Adrenal Glands

Related to the sympathetic nervous system Releases adrenaline

Absolute Threshold

The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

Difference Threshold

Also called just noticeable difference The smallest amount of change needed to detect a change in stimulus