Chapter 2: Approaches to Research & Analyzing Findings (OpenStax Psychology)

Vocabulary flashcards covering key terms from the lecture notes (pages 2–32).

Trephination

The ancient practice of making a hole in the skull to release evil spirits believed to cause mental illness.

Empirical

Based on observation or experiment rather than theory; evidence-based.

Empirical evidence

Observations or measurements derived from experience or experiments.

Inductive reasoning

Drawing general conclusions from specific observations.

Deductive reasoning

Drawing specific conclusions from general premises; if premises are true, the conclusion follows.

Theory

Well-developed set of ideas explaining observed phenomena and guiding research.

Hypothesis

A tentative, testable prediction about the relationship between variables; usually if-then and falsifiable.

Falsifiable

Capable of being proven false through observation or experiment.

Clinical or case study

Intensive study of a single individual or small group; results may not generalize.

Naturalistic observation

Watching behavior in a natural setting; can be affected by observer bias without clear criteria.

Observer bias

Observer expectations influence how data are recorded.

Surveys

Questionnaires or interviews used to collect data from a sample; can be administered in multiple ways.

Archival research

Using existing records or data sets to answer questions or find patterns.

Longitudinal research

Studying the same participants repeatedly over time; can reveal development but risks attrition.

Cross-sectional research

Comparing different groups at one point in time; quicker but less developmental insight.

Population

The entire group the researcher is interested in.

Sample

A subset of the population studied.

Random sample

Every member has an equal chance of being selected; improves representativeness.

Random assignment

Participants are assigned to groups by chance to control preexisting differences.

Experimental group

Group exposed to the manipulated independent variable.

Control group

Group not exposed to the manipulation; used for baseline comparison.

Independent variable

The manipulated variable in an experiment.

Dependent variable

The measured outcome used to assess the effect of the manipulation.

Operational definition

Explicit description of how variables will be measured or manipulated.

Placebo effect

Participants’ expectations influence their responses regardless of actual treatment.

Single-blind study

Participants do not know which group they are in, but researchers do.

Double-blind study

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments; reduces bias.

Reliability

Consistency and reproducibility of a measure or result.

Validity

Accuracy of a measure; whether it assesses what it is supposed to measure.

Inter-rater reliability

Degree of agreement among observers recording the same phenomenon.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

Committee that reviews and approves research involving human participants.

Informed consent

Process of informing participants about risks and rights and obtaining voluntary agreement to participate.

Deception

Purposely misleading participants to preserve study integrity; followed by debriefing.

Debriefing

Post-study explanation of the deception and study details to participants.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Historical unethical study illustrating the need for ethics; participants were not informed or treated.

IACUC

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee; oversees non-human animal research and emphasizes minimizing distress.