Anatomy and Phisiology: Unit 2

Chapters 5,6,7,8

What is the function of melanin?

To provide skin color and protect against the damaging effects of the ultraviolet radiation.

Describe the structure of the nail bed.

The nail bed is made up of specialized epithelial cells continuous with the epithelium of the skin.

What produces goosebumps?

Contraction of the arrector pili muscles causes goosebumps.

What is the tissue response to inflammation?

Blood vessels dilate and fluids leak into the damaged tissues.

What types of tissues make up the dermis?

Areolar connective tissue

Name the tissues in the subcutaneous layer beneath the skin?

Areolar and Adipose tissues.

Name the tissues in the outer and inner layers of the skin?

The epidermis and the dermis.

How do genetic factors influence skin color?

Genes control the amount of melanin in the melanocytes cells.

How do physiological factors influence skin color?

Oxygenated blood and dilated blood vessels redden the skin. Carotenes may turn the skin yellowish. Disease can also affect skin color.

Which environmental factors influence skin color?

Ultraviolet light from the sun, sun lamps, and x-rays.

What is the difference between thick and thin skin?

Thick skin has 5 layers of strata which is located on our palms and soles of our feet. Thin skin has 4 layers of strata which is located pretty much everywhere else and has hair.

What are the functions of the adipose tissue?

It provides reserve food fuel; insulates against heat loss, and supports and protects organs.

What is eccrine glands?

Sweat glands that has temperature control and antibacterial properties.

What is holocrine glands?

Sebaceous oil glands they secrete by cells accumulating a product and the entire cell disintegates.

What are apocrine glands?

Sexual scent glands. Secrete viscous milky or yellowish sweat that contains fatty substances and proteins.

What is the function of the sebaceous glands?

To secrete a fatty and oily substance called sebum.

Describe stratum basale.

The base layer deepest of all epidermis filled with cells.

Describe the stratum spinosum

It’s several layers thick and contains weblike system of intermediate prekeratin filaments attached to desmosomes. Keratinocytes are spikey so it’s prickle cells.

Describe stratum granulosum

Four to six layers of cells, cells are flattened so the layer is thin. It’s a dark layer.

Describe stratum lucidum.

A clear layer superficial to the stratum granulosum only found in thick skin.

Describe stratum corneum

It is 20-30 rows of keratinized dead cells. It is about 3 quarters of epidermal thickness. A barrier against biological, chemical, physical assaults.

Describe the composition of the epidermis.

It’s stratified squamous epithelium and lacks blood vessels. Composed of connective tissues and contains collagen and elastin.

What is the function of the subcutaneous layer?

It acts as an insulator, conserving the internal body heat and preventing the entrance of heat from the outside.

What does the subcutaneous layer contain?

The major blood vessels that supply nutrients and oxygen to the skin.

How are long bones classified?

Long bones are longer than they are wide. They consist of a long shaft with two bulky ends or extremities.

How are short bones classified?

Short bones are about long as they are wide. They are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions that are equal.

How are flat bones classified?

Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. The are flatter than they are round.

How are irregular bones classified?

They vary in shape. They don’t fit into any category (flat, short, long, or sesamoid).

List major parts of the long bone.

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Epiphysis

Articular Cartilage

Diaphysis

Periosteum

Medullary Cavity

Endosteum

Marrow

Describe the microscopic structure of the compact bone.

The osteocytes and layers of intercellular material concentrically clustered around an osteonic canal form a cylinder-shaped unit called an osteon.

How do compact and spongy bone differ in structure.

The compact bone is tightly packed and has extracellular matrix with no spaces. The spongy bone has holes in them to take the weight away.

Describe the development of an intramembranous bone.

Membrane like layers of unspecialized, or relatively undifferentiated, connective tissues appear at the sites of future bones.

Explain how an endochondral bone develops.

It develops in the fetus from masses of hyaline cartilage shaped like future bony structures.

Name the major functions of bones.

Bones provide shape and support for the body and provide protection for the organs. It provides mineral storage and formation of red blood cells.

Distinguish between the functions of red marrow and yellow marrow.

Red marrow is the formation of red blood cells, white blood cells, and blood platelets.

Yellow marrow stores fat; it is not active in blood cell production.

List the substances normally stored in bone tissue.

Calcium phosphate

Magnesium

Sodium

Potassium

Carbonate Ions

List the harmful substances stored in bone tissue.

Lead

Radium

Strontium.

Describe a typical vertebra.

It has a drum-shaped body which forms the thick, anterior portion of the bone.

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What does the axial skeleton consist of?

Skull

Hyoid Bone

Vertebral Column

Thoracic Cage

What does the appendicular skeleton consist of?

Pectoral Girdle

Upper Limbs

Pelvic Girdle

Lower Limbs

Which bones compose the thoracic cage?

Ribs

Thoracic Vertebra

Sternum

Costal Cartilages

How does physical exercise affect bone structure.

It stimulates bone tissue to thicken and strengthen.

Explain regulation of the concentration of blood calcium.

Blood calcium is regulated by parathyroid hormone which is produced by parathyroid glands.

What happens if the calcium level drops?

Parathyroid hormone stimulates osteoclasts to break down and release calcium.

What happens if the calcium level increases?

Calcitonin from the thyroid gland stimulates osteoblasts to deposit calcium in bones.

Which bones form the pectoral girdle?

2 Clavicles

2 Scapulae

Name the bones that fuse to form a hip bone.

Ilium

Ischium

Pubis

Explain how nutritional factors affect bone development?

Lack of vitamin D softens and deforms.

Name the three parts of the sternum.

Manubrium

Body

Xiphoid Process

Locate and name each bone that forms the pelvis.

Ilium

Acetabulum

Ischium

Pubis

Coccyx

Sacrum

Name the 6 types of synovial joints.

Planar

Hinge

Pivot

Condyloid

Saddle

Ball and socket

Describe the planar joint.

Bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly curved. These joints allow for gliding movements; therefore, the joints are sometimes referred to as gliding joints. Found in the carpal bones in the hand and the tarsal bones of the foot, as well as between vertebrae 

Describe the hinge joint.

Includes the ankle, elbow, and knee joints. Hinge joints are formed between two or more bones where the bones can only move along one axis to flex or extend.

Describe the pivot joint.

The rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone. This structure allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own axis. An example of a pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck that allows the head to move back and forth.

Describe the condyloid joint.

Oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped hollow of another bone. This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint. This type of joint allows angular movement along two axes, as seen in the joints of the wrist and fingers, which can move both side to side and up and down.

Describe the saddle joints.

The ends of each bone resemble a saddle, with concave and convex portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow angular movements similar to condyloid joints but with a greater range of motion. An example of a saddle joint is the thumb joint, which can move back and forth and up and down, but more freely than the wrist or fingers.

Describe the ball and socket joint.

A rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a cuplike socket of another bone. This organization allows the greatest range of motion, as all movement types are possible in all directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip joints

Describe the structure of a synovial joint.

The articulating bone ends are separated by a joint cavity containing synovial fluid. The two ends are covered in hyaline articular cartilage, and the entire joint is contained with a capsule of fibrous connective tissue. The capsule is lined by a synovial membrane that with fluid that lubricates the joints.

What is the function of an intervertebral disc?

Act as shock absorbers and provide flexibility to the spine, allowing it to flex and extend.

Describe what occurs in red bone marrow.

Hematopoiesis happens, which is the development of red and white blood cells and platelets.

Describe lordosis.

An exaggerated inward curve of the spine that typically affects the lower back, a condition called lumbar lordosis. 

Describe kyphosis

An exaggerated, forward rounding of the upper back. Also known as hunchback.

Describe scoliosis.

A side to side curvature of the spine. A S or C shape curve in spine.

Locate and name each of the bones in the cranium.

Frontal

Parietal R&L

Occipital

Temporal R&L

Sphenoid

Ethmoid

True Ribs (Vertebrosternal)

Ribs 1-7. Directly attached to the sternum by costal cartilage.

False RIbs

Ribs 8-10. Do not attach to the sternum, some of the costal cartilage connects to the costal cartilage of the 7th true rib.

Floating Ribs

Ribs 11-12. Half the size of the other bones and don’t attach to the sternum at all.

Cervical Vertebrae

Consists of the first seven vertebrae in your spine. It provides support for the weight of your head, surrounds and protects your spinal cord, and allows for a wide range of head motions

Thoracic Vertebrae

Consist of 12 vertebrae and is the longest section in the spine. These bones help protect your spinal cord from injury while allowing you to twist and turn.

Lumbar Vertebrae

Consist of 5 vertebrae and is located under the thoracic vertebrae. It provides stability for your back and spinal column and allow for a point of attachment for many muscles and ligaments. It supports most of your body’s weight and also is the center of your body’s balance.

Describe how movements occur at a joint when a muscle contracts.

It pulls the bone from the insertion end towards the origin end, which creates a certain movement of a joint. Which type of movement depends on the type of synovial joint.

Which structures help keep the articulating surfaces of the hip together?

The ball-like head of the femur and the acetabulum(socket)of the hip bone. This type of joint is a synovial joint.

What terms describe movements at synovial joints?

Flexion where the angle between the bones of the joint decrease.

Extension where the angle between the bones increases.

Synarthrosis (Fibrous) Joint

Immovable and have no joint cavity.

Syndesmosis (Fibrous) Joint

Two adjacent bones are linked by a strong membrane or ligaments.

Gomphosis (Fibrous) Joint

Synarthrotic joint which a conical process is inserted into a socket-like portion.

Synchondrosis (Cartilaginous) Joint

Bones are joined by the hyaline cartilage.

Symphysis (Cartilaginous) Joint

Bones are joined by fibrocartilage.

How are joints classified?

Joints are classified into two groups based on their anatomical characteristics and functionally, based on the type of movement they permit.

Temporal Bone

Sphenoid Bone

Ethmoid Bone

Hyoid Bone

Pelvis

Thoracic Cage

Rib

Pectoral Girdle

Clavicle Superior

Clavicle Inferior

Scapula Anterior

Scapula Posterior

Humerus

Fibula, Tibia

Name the layers of the epiphyseal plate.

Resting cartilage

Proliferating cartilage

Hypertrophy

Calcification

Resting cartilage layer

Full of deposited precursor chondrocytes. These cells will, later on, migrate to the proliferation zone. This layer serves reservoir purposes only.

Proliferating cartilage layer

organized in columns, isogenous chondrocytes are stacked on top of each other and undergo hypertrophy. While growing, the chondrocytes migrate from layer 2 into layer 3.

Hypertrophy layer

Chondrocytes from the zone of hypertrophy produce large amounts of extracellular matrix. The main component of this matrix is collagen. Because chondrocytes are trapped in the columns, they will enlarge and bones grow longitudinally.

Calcification layer

Apoptosis of chondrocytes occurs. After the removal of chondrocytes, this area will be colonized by osteoprogenitor cells and ossification will start.

What effects do hormones have on bone growth?

Growth hormone stimulated mitosis in the cartilage cells of the epiphyseal plates. Thyroid, Parathyroid, Male and Female Sex Hormones.