APUSH 1-2.2

Maize Cultivation (Impacts)

• Shifted societies from mobile hunter-gatherers → sedentary agr in SW & Mesoamerica

• Supported pop growth, social stratification, & complex irrigation systems (e.g., Hohokam, Anasazi)

Great Basin / Great Plains NA Life

• Arid climate → nomadic, mobile lifestyle (e.g., Ute, Apache) w/ teepees

• Focused on foraging & bison hunting

• Post-1492: Transformed by Euro introduction of horses (boosted hunting/warfare mobility)

Iroquois Confederacy (Northeast)

• Alliance of 5 (later 6) tribes (Mohawk, Seneca, etc.) formed by Deganawida & Hiawatha to stop intertribal war

• Semi-sedentary 3-sister agr (maize, beans, squash), lived in multi-family longhouses

• Matrilineal structure (women chose male council representatives)

Northwest / Pacific NA Life

• Ocean/river resources (salmon fishing) supported dense, permanent villages (e.g., Chinook)

• Material wealth displayed via "potlatch" ceremonies (prestige gained by giving away goods)

3 G’s & Exploration Tech

• Causes: Gold (Asian trade routes/extract wealth), God (Cath/Prot conversions), Glory (nation-state competition/BOP)

• Tech: Caravel (lateen sail), Astrolabe, Magnetic Compass, Joint-Stock Cos (shared investment risk)

Columbian Exchange (Impacts)

1. To Old World: Maize, potatoes (Euro pop explosion), silver (caused Price Rev, shifted Feudalism -> Capitalism)

2. To New World: Smallpox/measles (killed up to 90% NAs; "Virgin Soil Epidemics"), horses, pigs, wheat

Encomienda System

• Spanish crown granted land + forced NA labor to conquistadors (encomenderos)

• Requirement: Protect & convert NAs to Catholicism • Reality: Coerced labor/slavery in silver mines & cash crop plantations (sugar)

Casta System

• Racial hierarchy in Spanish America based on "white blood"

• Hierarchy: Peninsulares/Criollos (top) -> Mestizos (Euro+NA) & Mulattoes (Euro+Afr) -> NAs & Enslaved Africans (bottom)

• Dictated social status, legal rights, & tax obligations

Valladolid Debates (1550-1551)

• Debate over NA rights/treatment in Spanish Empire

• Bartolomé de Las Casas: NAs fully human, condemned encomienda cruelty, favored peaceful conversion

• Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda: NAs "subhuman/natural slaves"

• (Curse of Ham argument), subjugation justified to civilize

Pueblo Revolt / Popé’s Rebellion (1680)

• SW Pueblo NA uprising vs. Spanish rule (Oñate context) in Santa Fe

• Cause: Forced Cath conversion & harsh suppression of NA religious customs

• Result: Killed 400+ Spanish, drove them out for 12 yrs; Spanish returned w/ greater religious tolerance

Spanish vs. French/Dutch vs. English Models

• Spanish: Royal control, forced labor (Encomienda/Hacienda), wealth extraction, intermarriage/Casta

• French/Dutch: Small pop, fur trade focus, strategic trade alliances (e.g., Huron), intermarriage, trade > conversion

• English: Family migration, land acquisition for agr, displaced NAs, strict racial separation

English Push Factors (16th-17th C)

• Enclosure Movement: Common lands fenced for sheep grazing -> displaced tenant farmers -> urban poverty/homelessness •

• Primogeniture laws: Only oldest sons inherited land

• Religious conflict (Puritans/Separatists seeking freedom) + search for social mobility

Roanoke Colony (1585/1587)

• 1st English attempt in NA off NC coast, sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh

• Relied on local Algonquians -> conflict led to abandonment

• 2nd attempt led by John White vanished ("CROATOAN"), proving English challenge w/ early colonization

Syncretism (Cultural Adaptation)

• Blending of Euro & NA/Afr traditions

• Examples: NAs incorporating Christian God into polytheistic views (e.g., Virgin of Guadalupe); French trappers adopting NA survival practices

Southwest Native Societies (e.g., Pueblo, Anasazi)

• Environment: Arid deserts and rocky terrain

• Economy/Lifestyle: Sedentary farmers; heavily reliant on maize (corn) cultivation and complex irrigation systems

• Settlement: Built multi-story terraced dwellings out of adobe and stone, as well as cliff dwellings (e.g., Mesa Verde)

Great Basin Native Societies (e.g., Ute, Paiute)

• Environment: Extremely arid, harsh climate with limited water/resources (between the Rockies and Sierra Nevada)

• Economy/Lifestyle: Highly mobile hunter-gatherers; foraged for nuts/seeds (pine nuts) and hunted small game

• Settlement: Small, nomadic, egalitarian kinship bands that moved constantly to avoid exhausting local resources

Great Plains Native Societies (e.g., Sioux, Comanche)

• Environment: Vast, flat grasslands with seasonal extremes

• Economy/Lifestyle: Nomadic hunter-gatherers heavily dependent on hunting bison (buffalo) for food, clothing, and tools

• Settlement: Lived in easily transportable tepees; lifestyle and hunting efficiency were vastly expanded later by the European introduction of the horse

Mississippi River Valley Societies (e.g., Hopewell)

• Environment: Fertile river valleys and temperate climate

• Economy/Lifestyle: Mixed agricultural economy (maize-based) supplemented by hunting/fishing; acted as hubs for vast continental trade networks

• Settlement: Sedentary, highly stratified chiefdoms; built massive earthen mounds for religious ceremonies and elite residences

Northeast / Eastern Woodlands Societies (e.g., Iroquois, Algonquian)

• Environment: Dense forests with abundant rivers and lakes

• Economy/Lifestyle: Mixed economy alternating between seasonal hunting/gathering and "Three Sisters" agriculture (corn, beans, squash)

• Settlement: Semi-permanent villages; used controlled forest burning to clear hunting grounds; Iroquois built massive multi-family longhouses

Northwest Coast Societies (e.g., Chinook)

• Environment: Coastal regions with heavy rainfall and dense cedar forests

• Economy/Lifestyle: Non-agricultural; supported entirely by abundant ocean/river resources (especially salmon fishing) and foraging

• Settlement: Permanent villages with large cedar plank houses; highly stratified wealth-based societies known for displaying status through "potlatch" ceremonies

Beringia (Land Bridge)

• Exposed dry land connecting Siberia and Alaska during the last Ice Age

• Formed because massive glaciers stored the earth's water, drastically lowering global sea levels

• Allowed the initial migration of Asian nomadic peoples into North America as they followed herds of large game

Clovis Tradition

• Distinctive fluted stone spear-point technology developed ~13,000 years ago

• Used extensively by Paleo-Indian big-game hunters across North America to hunt megafauna (like mammoths and mastodons)

• Represents one of the earliest widespread and identifiable indigenous cultures on the continent

Pacific Coastal Route Migration

• Alternative migration theory suggesting early peoples traveled south along the Pacific coastline

• Migrants utilized boats and relied heavily on abundant coastal marine resources (kelp highway) rather than inland hunting

• Supported by archaeological discoveries of pre-Clovis settlements (e.g., Monte Verde in Chile) that predate the opening of an ice-free inland corridor