Roman Archaeology Quals

Capitoline She-Wolf
    Date:     early 5th century BCE; figures of Romulus and Remus added c. 1472

New research based on casting process, and thermoluminescence dating indicate that the wolf may be medieval, not Etruscan.

The she wolf nursing Romulus and Remus, legendary founders of Rome after they were abandoned in the River Tiber. Even Livy thought this was far fetched, thought “she-wolf” might refer to sex worker

Palatine Hill, Rome, Foundations of Iron Age huts
Date:     mid 8th century BCE

Rome. Regia. Restored plan of second structure.
    Work Type:     architecture
    Date:     ca. 600 BCE

-early building that continues to be rebuilt and to exist into reign of Flavians

-later story that this house belonged to king Numa, mythological king, would be 8th c. this building not old

-called Regia (royal)

-still don’t know what this building was for

-in course of 6th c., one of few buildings from early 6th c., already a building there, so important

-house like structure with 3 rooms in the back and trapezoidal courtyard, built from cappellocia

-know they built and rebuilt building 3 times in course of 6th c.

-special house or religious shrine with columns, terracotta revetments

Altars (limestone), Hellenistic, Italy

6-5th c.Thirteen archaic altars, each consisting of two-storied structure with deep recess in top for reception of offerings and sacrifices.

According to the myth as we know it from Virgil, Aeneas, after his flight from Troy and stay in Carthage, landed in Latium. When he had established his power in the area, he married Lavinia, the daughter of the king of Latium, and founded the town of Lavinium. [-- OCD .]On the ancient site of Lavinium, now called Practica di Mare, thirteen archaic-style altars have come to light: proof that as early as the sixth century B.C. this place was what it remained ever after, a center of Rome's official religion and a focal point for local legends, from the arrival of Aeneas to the murder of King Titus Tatius. It was here that the Romans paid homage to the Di Penates brought from Troy, and to Vesta, goddess of Fire and Hearth, whose cult was Greek in origin. Here, too, the Dioscuri, Castor and Pollux, had a shrine: the cult of these protective heroes is attested by an inscription on a bronze plaque found among the Lavinium altars, and datable to about 500 B.C. [--Bandinelli.]The obvious implication of Bandinelli's statement is that the gods worshiped at this ancient site were all imported. The phenomenon of the foreign deity is already known to us from Greece, although the majority of the Hellenic deities are indigenous. But as Rose is at pains to point out, this is not the case in Rome. He suggests that Roman religion can perhaps be better understood as polydaimonism than polytheism. The Roman gods lack personalities, geneaolgies and mythology. Every object is endowed with numen or force, but beyond that the innumerable divinities are mere names. There is no such thing as a Roman fashion of making what we call a temple. The deities' presence was commonly made known to worshipers by a sign or emblem of some sort. Later, again, the foreign fashion of having images in human shape in the temples was adopted, though not universally approved. In fact, most of the deities, save for Vesta whose fires must be maintained, were neglected between one festival and the next. What did go on daily was the domestic cult, the tending of the Lares and the Penates. Perhaps the best explanation of the essential difference between the Romans and almost all other primitive cultures is the following statement from Rose, describing the Roman reaction to a miraculous event. "Certainly there had been  numen  at work, but where a Greek would have set about finding, to his own satisfaction at least, what god it was, and probably would have added a suitable title to the name of some existing deity, the Romans were content to describe him in terms of the one fact relating to him which they knew." Exactly what meaning these archaic altars originally had for the Romans is difficult to define. What seems most reasonable is to suggest that perhaps they were first meant to represent a center for the worship of all the  numina , which contact with the Greeks refined into specific gods.

Rome: Tomb of the Scipios at Porta Capena: plan
    Title:     Tomb of the Scipios at Porta Capena
    Date:     3rd-2nd C. B.C, Hellenistic period

-on Via Appia, where elites of Roman want to have their tombs

-elite family of mid-Rep Rome, won second Punic war

-large chamber cut out of bedrock on side of via Appia, more cliff tomb, face carved like Hellenitic masoleum, family well-traveled, familiar with this tradition

-limestone statues, complex decoration, inscirptions

-façade part carved from bedrock, part built

-hybrid between cent Italian traditions and Hellenistic styles

-were criticized by fellow Romans for their Greekness, accused of corrupting city of Rome

Sarcophagus of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus
    Date:     Early 3rd C. B.C

Shows Hellenistic influence on Roman art, Doric triglph and metope frieze on sarcophagus. Scipios were notorious Hellenophiles.

Early 3rd c. BCE inscription with deeds of deceased.

Cippus from Lapis Niger shrine with bustrophedonic inscription in Archaic Latin, Rome

Closer to Greek alphabet than later Latin inscriptions

Appears to dedicate shrine to a “rex”

Some kind of laws

c. 575-550 BCE

Rome: Temple group at S. Omobono: fragment of statuary group: det.: Hercules and Minerva
    Title:     Temple group at S. Omobono
    Date:     end 6th C. to early 5th C. B.C
    Location:     Rome
    Location:     Etruscan

-best acroterial sculptures from Rome

-panthers, sphinxes, dancing maenads

-Hercules wearing a corset, not part of Greek iconography, NE?

-Hercules typical emporic cult in harbors, because he is a travelling hero that merchants identified with

-Romans appear to be catering to international audience by sphinxes with oriental resonance, choice of deities honored

-one of main things you would see coming up river

-this is a civilized place, you can trade here safely under protection of cult of Hercules

-tradition that goes back before 6th c., because Forum Boarium is where imported pottery was found, Mycenean and Geometric pottery

Rome. Terracotta plaque from the Regia. Mid-6^th c. BCE.

-mold-made terracotta plaque similar to other palaces like Gabii and Murlo with columns

-depicts minotaur, rare Greek myth to be depicted in Italy, myth of the Minotaur associated with associated with kingship in Athens, Theseus kills Minotaur and is acclaimed first king of Athens afterwards, part of ideology of monarchy in Athens

-myth connected with royalty depicted on plaque on building called the royal building, a piece of pottery with graffitio “Rex” or king

-later myths is where Rex Sacrorum, priesthood where you perform royal functions for religious purposes only, lives in Regia

 Rome: Temple of Jupiter: plan
    Date:     509 B.C.?
    Location:     Rome
    Description:     on the Capitoline

-peripterus sine postica, 3 rows of columns

-only finished around 510-500 BCE

-later than early 6th c. Poliadic temples in other cities, Rome a latecomer to poliadic temples, start late but go big

-different reconstructions of it

-when finished, it is the largest temple in Central Italy

-only podium preserved since everything else made from wood and mud

-podium not solid stone, but foundations that corresponds to walls and columns where weight will rest, other not load bearing areas just have soil foundation

-no known archaic podium completely stone

-same building technique as Servian walls, ashlar masonry, the same shape and size of blocks, 30 cm high and about 60 cm long

-suggests standardized quarrying, centralized government has control of quarries and can churn out blocks on sem-industrial scale for all of these building projects

-representative form : tripartite cella, because divided into 3 rooms, each would have contained a cult statue, particularly convenient for triads, temple of Capitoline Triad, central god is Jupiter, side gods are Juno and Minerva, wife and daughter of Jupiter

-other triads, always a main god and two side gods

-Italian cellas much broader and squatter than Greek ones, since temple is squarish, wider, easier to accommodate a Triad

Togate Barberini (Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors)
    Date:     second half of the 1st century BCE
    Material:     marble
    Measurements:     5 feet 5 inches high
    Style Period:     Republican

Parts put together by antiquarian, didn’t originally all go together.

Suggests cult of ancestor worship with busts of the ancestors kept in atrium brought out for religious festivals.

 Portrait Head of a Man from Osimo
    Date:     c.50-40 B.C
    Material:     marble

Roman tradition of veristic portraiture. Age shows his wisdom, appropriate for position of magistrate held by elite families.

Heroized portrait statue of a Roman from Delos
    Date:     ca. 100-80 B.C
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Roman sculpture
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Republican--509-27 B.C
    Subject:     classical style

Roman veristic portraiture style for head and idealized heroic body in classical Greek style with contrapposto and modelled muscles.

Statue of a Roman General: front view
    Date:     c.80 B.C
    Location:     Roman
    Material:     marble
    Description:     From Tivoli

Roman veristic portraiture style for head and idealized heroic body in Hellenistic Greek style of rulers and heroes post-Alexander with contrapposto and modelled muscles.

 Portrait head of Pompey
    Date:     c.50 B.C
    Location:     Roman
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Pompey, the Great, 106-48 B.C

Hairstyle emulates Alexander the Great, clearly Pompey influenced by depictions of Alex the G in his Eastern campaigns.

Combined with Roman tradition of veristic portraiture for his face.

Bust of Julius Caesar
    Date:     mid 1st century BCE
    Site:     Creation Site: Rome, Italy
    Material:     green granite and white glass
    Style Period:     Late Republican
    Description:     The bust's format suggests a date in late Republican times. The green granite is a material coming from Egypt which proves the authenticity and the provenance of Sk 342 (that was thought by some scholars a modern forgery). Indeed, Sk 342 is a non canonical version of the portraits of Julius Caesar.
    Description:     Condition: Apart from minor 19th century restorations, the bust is very well preserved.
    Description:     Treatment: The eyes were restored in the 19th century and separately inserted. Other restorations of modern times are as follows: part of tunica on right side, part of right ear and part of toga.

Colossal portrait head of Vitellius: front view
    Date:     69 A.D

Return to Roman Republican veristic portraiture after classical style associated with Julio-Claudians and unpopular Nero. However, puffy face and short hair is characteristic of Neronian portraiture.

 Portrait Head of Emperor Vespasian
    Date:     70-5 A.D
    Material:     marble

Return to Roman Republican veristic portraiture after classical style associated with Julio-Claudians and unpopular Nero.

Shows unflattering details like his receeding hairline that also characterize portraits of his successor Titus. All portraits so similar they were likely based on a single bust that was a model.

Smile may show his sense of humor. Deathbed quote: “I think I’m becoming a god”

Statue of Titus Wearing a Toga
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     81 CE
    Material:     marble

Continues tradition of veristic portraiture. Also solidifies dynastic continuity since he resembles his father Vespasian in aspects like receding hairline.

In pose of ad locutio like Roman Republican senator, traditional Roman pose and dress.

Head from a Statue of Domitian Front View
    Date:     c.90 A.D
    Material:     marble

His hairstyle meant to be evocative of Augustus, break from his father and brother’s realistic portrayal of their receding hairlines. Know he was bald in real life.

Roman, Early Empire (Flavian period)
    Title:     Portrait bust of a Flavian Lady
    Date:     ca. 90 C.E. [A.D.]

Drilled curls show new stone-cutting technique that will be used more in 2nd c.

Elaborate up-do characteristic of female portraiture in reign of Domition who encouraged women to take up domestic pursuits. Intricate hairstyle reflects her virtue as wife, protecting reputation of her husband by paying attention to her personal appearance.

Portrait bust of a Flavian Lady [rear view, detail of coiffure]
    Date:     ca. 90      

       Elaborate up-do characteristic of female portraiture in reign of Domition who encouraged women to take up domestic pursuits. Intricate hairstyle reflects her virtue as wife, protecting reputation of her husband by paying attention to her personal appearance.

Is theory that this hairstyle would have required sewing the hair.

Togate Statue of the Young Nero
    Work Type:     Sculpture
    Date:     c. 50 AD
    Material:     Marble

“The draped toga, the most characteristic form of male dress among the Romans, was assumed at the time when a young man came of age and took on adult responsibilities. This statue is thought to represent the young Nero at about fifteen years of age when he was adopted by the emperor Claudius. Nero can be recognized by his wide forehead, small chin, projecting ears, and hair arranged in bangs. In later life as emperor, he developed double chins and a reputation for debauchery, indications of which are not yet evident in this youthful portrait.” (From DIA website)

Show Nero was being groomed for succession to Claudius by commissioning portraiture of him. Augustan comma-style locks show Julio-Claudian dynastic continuity.

Portrait statue of Nero as a boy: front
    Date:     before 51 A.D
    Material:     marble

Parma type statue of Nero. Wearing a bulla or protective amulet worn by children, showing he is not yet considered a man. “Nero can be recognized by his wide forehead, small chin, projecting ears, and hair arranged in bangs. In later life as emperor, he developed double chins and a reputation for debauchery, indications of which are not yet evident in this youthful portrait.” (From DIA website)

Show Nero was being groomed for succession to Claudius by commissioning portraiture of him. Augustan comma-style locks show Julio-Claudian dynastic continuity.

Marcus Aurelius

Culture:     Greek
    Title:     Ephesus
    Title:     general view
    Date:     161-180 CE

Emperors start to be depicted with beards after Hadrian. Fits with Marcus Aurelius’ interest in Stoic philosophy along with his contemplative expression. Longer bearded portraits thought to date to later in his reign. Thick heavily drilled curls frame his forehead and a full mustache joins with his beard. (Type III?)

Portrait Bust of Commodus: front view
    Date:     c.176
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Commodus, Emperor of Rome, 161-192

Has not yet adopted iconography of Hercules as he would later. Called the “boy portrait” type.

Hair more layered in parallel rows. Drilled pupils positioned under his half-closed eyelids like portraiture of his father Marcus Aurelius.

Portrait Bust of Commodus as Hercules
    Date:     c.190
    Material:     marble

Esquiline or Third Sole Ruler type statue that emerged at end of Commodus’ reign. Depicts him as Hercules who he was a big fan of. Characterized by longer and thicker curls than previously and a longer and thicker beard. Typical half-closed eyes over drilled pupils. Well-carved and a lot of symbolism.

Carries club like Heracles as well as wearing Nemean lion skin. In his left hand carries the apples of the Hesperides, recalling another one of Hercules’ labors. Kneeling Amazon underneath symbolizes’ Hercules’ prowess in battle in defeating enemies of Roman empire just like Hercules defeated the Amazons.

Originally part of a statue group with two Tritons holding a mantle called parapetasma over his head that symbolized his control over sea and sky.

Portrait Bust of Septimius Severus
    Date:     200-205 A.D
    Material:     marble

Portrait bust of Septimius Severus in the Serapis type or Type III. Introduced around 200. Similar to depictions of Greco-Egyptian god Serapis who was also depicted with 3-4 twisted curls spaced out on the forehead and a mustache and long, thick curly beard hanging below the jaw. Thought to be inspired by his visit to Egypt in 199-200 where he worshipped the god Serapis. Meant to promote image of Severans as having world domination and restoring peace after war with Parthians.

Portrait Bust of Julia Domna: front view
    Date:     c.193-194
    Location:     Roman
    Material:     marble

Born in Emesa, Syria, Julia Domna married Septimius Severus when he was legatus of province. Became Augusta when Severus became Emperor. Mother of Geta and Caracalla. Caracalla said to have killed Geta in front of her.

Accompanied Severus and Caracalla on military campaign around Roman Empire.

Women presented in more expressive fashion in statuary of this period as can be seen in Julia Domna’s furrowed brow. Also part of tradition of veristic portraiture. Serious expression linked her to male counterpart. Not looking downward demurely, but ahead, assertive like male portraiture.

Large wig with escaping curls typical of depiction of Severan women. Combination of features of male portraiture showing that she is equivalent to emperor along with aspects showing her femininity. Busts of emperor and empress would be displayed together so connection between them would be obvious.

Statue of the young Caracalla as the infant Hercules strangling serpents
    Date:     c.193 A.D
    Material:     marble

Assosciating Caracalla with myth of Hercules like Commodus. Interest in depicting children from Hellenistic period. Statue of Commodus in same pose may have been made at the same time once his image was being rehabilitated. Caracalla named heir as a child.

Bust of Emperor Caracalla
    Work Type:     portrait sculpture
    Date:     212-217 CE

Scowling expression, more mature than previous busts with a thicker neck and fuller beard. Parallel horizontal wrinkles on forehead. Furrowed eyebrows shadowing eyes and short, thick curls. Sole Ruler type I after assassination of his brother and co-emperor Geta in 212. Aggressive scowl departure from facial expressions of prev emperors, perhaps meant to show his strength as a military leader.

Curly beard with cleft chin still exposed.

Marble portrait of the emperor Caracalla
    Work Type:     Portrait head of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (called Caracalla)
    Period:     Mid-Imperial, Severan
    Date:     ca. A.D. 217-230

Second successor type. Now has shorter hair that will be associated with later military emperors and lightly etched facial hair. Looking to the left.

Portrait head of Emperor Elagabalus, Type II left view
    Date:     220-222 A.D
    Material:     marble

This style of portraiture with his facial hair may have been introduced for his entry into Rome c. and introduction of Eastern Cult of Elagabal. Compared to prev, longer and more loosely placed locks of hair. Curls on forehead mainly point left with fork at center. Beard and side burn thicker and more twisted on top and more lightly etched below. Well delineated eyebrows frame his eyes which are wider than previous examples.

Bust of Alexander Severus
    Date:     c. 222 - 235 CE
    Material:     marble
    Style Period:     Late Antique

Extant portraits of Alexander Severus all so similar they must be derived from one original model. Youthful face with very short hair very similar to his predecessors, like Caracalla, establishing dynastic connection. A penna technique used to etch his hair. Group D portrait shows a more mature emperor with a beard and mustache. Wearing toga contabulata characteristic of late Roman Empire.

Portrait Bust of Alexander Severus Front View
    Date:     c.222
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Severan--193-235 A.D

Extant portraits of Alexander Severus all so similar they must be derived from one original model. Youthful face with very short hair very similar to his predecessors, like Caracalla, establishing dynastic connection. A penna technique used to etch his hair. Wearing toga contabulata characteristic of late Roman Empire.

From earlier in his reign, c. 222, when he is more youthful in appearance based on his lack of facial hair. Growth of facial hair used to show his aging as in portraits of predecessor Elagabalus.

 Young Nero
    Date:     37-68 CE
    Material:     marble

Parma type statue of Nero. Wearing a bulla or protective amulet worn by children, showing he is not yet considered a man. “Nero can be recognized by his wide forehead, small chin, projecting ears, and hair arranged in bangs. In later life as emperor, he developed double chins and a reputation for debauchery, indications of which are not yet evident in this youthful portrait.” (From DIA website)

Show Nero was being groomed for succession to Claudius by commissioning portraiture of him. Augustan comma-style locks show Julio-Claudian dynastic continuity.

Portrait Bust of Augustus Laureate
    Date:     c.20 B.C-10 A.D
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 63 B.C.-14 A.D

Wearing Laurel wreath of triumph. By 19 BCE, no one can have triumph as princeps was supreme imperator, regalia of triumph integrated into imperial cult.

Since Augustus saved the Republic and brought peace, the senate accorded him a permanent triumph.

Also assosciation of laurel with Apollo, his patron god.

Augustus as Imperator (Augustus of Primaporta)
    Date:     early 1st century CE copy of an bronze original of ca. 20 BCE
    Material:     marble

Copy from after his death as he is barefoot and would not be depicted as such during his lifetime as it signified divinity. Addressing the troops ad locutio but pose based on Greek statue Doryphoros.

Wearing Roman Republican cuiraiss of a victorious general, but rendered in Classical Greek style that woudl characterize Augustan and Julio-Claudian art.

Eros signified his descent from Venus and connection to JC.

Typical crab claw hairstyle.

Breastplate has Tellus or mother earth with two babies (like on Ara Pacis)

Seated captives from Gaul and Hispania to celebrate Augustus’ military victories. Central panel shows return of the Parthian standards in 20 BCE that were lost by Crassus.

Augustus with veiled head (Augustus as Pontifex Maximus)
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     c. 12 BCE-14 CE
    Material:     marble

Shows Augustus embodying value of Pietas with capite velato. Performing a religious ritual, probably a sacrifice. Carved in style of 5th c. BCE Athens, Classicizing style characterizes art in his reign. Eternally youthful even though already 50 when this statue was made.

Became Pontifex Maximus in 14 BCE. Show tendency to portrary Augustus in traditional ways during his lifetime, keeping up the shared illusion that he is princeps, first among equals.

Greek proportions advocated by Polykleitos with the head, arms, and veil on head made of finer Greek marble.

 Bust of Livia
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Livia, Empress, consort of Augustus, Emperor of Rome, ca. 58 B.C.-29 A.D

Fayum type Livia as a Roman matron, mater patriae, promoting economia and return to traditional Roman family values promoted by Augustus. Her old-fashioned nodus hairstyle emblematic of matronly modesty and economia. Shown as always youthful like Augustus, but chin and mouth severe

Public portraiture for elite woman departure from norms of Roman Republic, part of Augustus creating a dynasty. Augustus also needs to have her portrait convey her special status as empress, so her hairstyle of loose waves resembles those of goddesses. Blends Republican veristic portraiture with hints at divinity. Show new imperial roman female ideal.

Statue group: Augustus with Gaius and Lucius: det.: Gaius Caesar
    Date:     after 4 A.D
    Location:     Corinth (Greece)
    Material:     marble
    Description:     From the Julian Basilica, Corinth

Classical style body. Augustan “crab claw” hairstyle. Emphasize dynastic continuity with his chosen heirs. Their faces look similar.

Portrait bust of Tiberius: left profile
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Tiberius, Emperor of Rome, 42 B.C.-37 A.D
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Julio-Claudian--27 B.C-69 A.D

Comma hairstyle, smooth skin, idealized features like portraits of Augustus to show dynastic continuity.

Found in Fayum with portraits of Augustus and Livia, connecting him with dynastic group. Family portraits known from Republic but come to take on explicitly political function.

 Emperor Claudius in the Guise of Jupiter
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     c. 50 CE
    Material:     marble

Roman veristic portraiture of face with signs of aging like pronounced nasiolabal grooves. Shows his individual traits like protruding ears. We know he was into earlier Roman history. Classic portrayal of body with contrapposto. Becomes okay to show living emperor as Jupiter after reign of Caligula.

Julio-claudian comma hairstyle reinforces dynastic continuity.

Show power of the emperor and that his representative of Jupiter on Earth.

  Villa of the Papyri, Pompeii: Head of the Doryphoros

Culture:     Roman
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     c. 440 BCE
    Location:     Pompeii
Roman interest in collecting Greek statues and copies of them. From villa originally believed to be owned by Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, a consul in 58 BCE, the FIL of Julius Caesar. Collected Greek statues that he kept in his garden. Interest in Greek philosophy attested by many papyri on Epicurean philosophy in his library.

Portrait of Trajan as Imperator

   Culture:     Roman
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     c. 108 CE
    Material:     marble
    Style Period:     Late Trajanic
    Description:     from the Schola of Trajan in Ostia

Decennalia type Trajan portrait because of hypothesized connection with Trajan’s Deccennalia. Maybe after Dacian campaign. Trajan wearing military dress, was originally a military man, spent much of his reign on campaign, extended borders of Roman empire to their furthest extent. Hairstyle reminiscent of Augustan portraiture. In pose and dress resembles the prima porta Augustus.

 Portrait bust of Trajan: front view
    Date:     c.108 A.D
    Description:     Formerly in the Villa Albani

Augustan comma hairstyle. Decannalia type in which he is nude except for the paludamentum on one shoulder and a sword belt (balteus) on the other. Commissioned after Dacian campaign. Emphasizes military prowess of Trajan. Pose of head turned to the right captures vitality of prima porta Augustus.

Head of the Empress Sabina Front View
    Date:     c.117-134 A.D
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Hadrian--117-138 A.D

Clacissizing face like earlier depictions of goddesses but less elaborate hairstyle than Flavian period that will set the standard for portraits of empresses after this. Hairstyle parted in center and pulled back into a ponytail or chignon. Lunate crown with veil like that of a goddess probably Venus. Other statues specifically assosciate her with specific goddesses. Divine imagery used on portraits of empress like portrait of Livia. Wife of Hadrian that he didn’t like very much.

Antinous in Egyptian dress and posture
    Date:      c.130-138 A.D.
    Material:     parian marble
    Description:     From Hadrian's Villa

Bithynian lover of Hadrian. Drowned on a boat on the Nile. Hadrian was devastated. Deified him after his death and assimilated him to the god Osiris who is often called the “drowned one” in Egyptian. Busts of the divine Antinous were distributed throughout the empire. This statue from Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli, specifically his Egyptian-themed Serapeum complex.

Statue of Antinous as Apollo Front View
    Date:     After 130 A.D
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Hadrian--117-138 A.D

From Delphi

Divine Antinous also depicted as Greek deity in Greek style. Hadrian a Hellenophile.

Elaborate curls, would have had bronze wreath. Face turned down and to the right in contemplation. Heroic nudity of Greek artistic tradition and contrapposto pose.

Portrait head of Faustina the Elder: front view
    Date:     138-141 A.D
    Material:     marble
    Description:     From Lanuvium
    Description:     Wife of Antonines Pius
    Subject:     Faustina, Annia Galeria, Empress, consort of Antoninus Pius, Emperor of Rome, 104-140

She died in 140, was deified by Antoninus Pius after her death. First empress with permanent sculpture in Forum Romanum.

Faustina had a distinctive hairstyle of braids pulled up to the back or top of her head that was emulated for a few generations after her death.

Portrait bust of Young Marcus Aurelius: det.: head
    Date:     c.140 A.D

Drilling of pupils in portraits started in reign of Hadrian. Half-closed eyes typical of portrait of Marcus Aurelius. Portrait from when he was adopted by Antoninus Pius. Type 1 or Boy type. Has full and curly hair like adoptive father in order to establish dynastic continuity. Most youthful of his portraiture with narrow oval face, rounded chin, straight nose, full lips, and no beard. A group of curls are bunched on his forehead. Eyebrows well-defined.

He is wearing a paludamentum pinned on the shoulder with a fibula, which is commonly seen with portraits of this type.

Portrait Head of Young Marcus Aurelius: front view
    Date:     c.145
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Marcus Aurelius, Emperor of Rome, 121-180

Drilling of curls, more sharply defined than earlier portraiture, and pupils. Type II, Crown Prince type. He is still youthful but beginning to look more mature as his facial hair is growing in. Type possibly introduced on occassion of his first consulship or being made Caesar

 Equestrian statue of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius [modern replica in the Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome]
    Date:     original ca. 163-173  
    Location:     Rome, Italy

Type III portrait type with some Type IV features. Marcus is bigger than his horse. In same pose as equestrian statue of Trajan, but instead of striking down his foe, his arm is raised in gesture of clemency. Not wearing armor, theme of clemency in statue.

Rome: Arch of Marcus Aurelius: panel relief: 'Triumph': det.: head of Marcus
    Title:     Arch of Marcus Aurelius
    Date:     c.176-180 A.D

From late in his reign, type IV portraiture. Style may have been introduced with joint triumph of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus in 166.

Beard longer and thicker than type 3. Locks of hair flow back from forehead in anastole reminscent of depictions of Alexander the Great and Jupiter.

More signs of age in his face.

Portrait bust of Faustina the Younger: front view
    Date:     c.147-48 A.D
    Location:     Roman
    Material:     marble
    Description:     Held in the Museo Capitolino, Rome
    Description:     From Hadrian's Villa

Daughter of Antoninus Pius and wife of Marcus Aurelius, though originally betrothed to Lucius Verus. Made Augusta after bearing her first child c. 147 when this portrait was made of her.

Her marriage ensured peaceful dynastic transition of power. Hair parted in center and arranged in waves. Her face fleshy and resembles Sabina more than Faustina the Elder her mother.

Statue of Septimius Severus Type II Front View
    Date:     c.196-200
    Material:     bronze
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Severan--193-235 A.D

Now it is considered allowable for Roman elite men, even the emperor, to be depicted in a style of Greek heroic nudity, something which was unthinkable before.

Type II, Adoption type made after retrospective adoption by the deceased Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Face and beard are longer and hair has more volume than the previous type. Noticeable partition in his beard just below the chin. Eyes gaze upward like portraits of Marcus Aurelius.

    Creator:     After Lysippos
    Title:     Hercules Farnese
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     3rd century CE Roman copy of a 4th century BCE Greek original
    Material:     marble
    Description:     Made for the Baths of Caracalla, recovered 1546.

Roman interest in Greek sculpture, make copies of Greek sculptures that are often all that survive of the bronze originals. Caracalla was a fan of Hercules. Pieces like this likely influenced his own self-representation as Hercules.

Portrait bust of Maximinus Thrax: det.: head
    Date:     c.235
    Location:     Kings
    Location:     Roman
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Maximinus, C. Julius Verus, Roman Emperor, d. 238

Of Thracian descent (Thrax), proclaimed Emperor by the Roman Army on death of Alexander Severus. His reign marks beginning of Crisis of the 3rd Century. First emperor who was neither a patrician or equestrian.

Shown with rugged appearance and the short hair of a soldier. Called a “barracks emperor.” Realism of emperor as intimidating military man that began with Caracalla.

 Portrait bust of Emperor Pupienus front: det.: head
    Date:     c.238 A.D
    Material:     marble

Random Roman Senator appointed by Senate to be co-ruler with Balbinus when Maximinius Thrax was marching on Rome after Senate betrayed him and supported Gordians. People angry at his ascension because he was a patrician and unpopular for severity when he was Urban Prefect of Rome during reign of Alexander Severus.

Was emperor for only 99 days during the year of the 6 emperors. Tortured to death by disaffected Praetorian guard with Balbinus in bathhouse (yeesh)

Bust shows an older man, veristic portraiture. In charge of army but wearing civilian contabulatio style toga (like depiction of Alexander Severus). Short hair typical of military emperors. Drilled pupils also typical. Long beard with drilling and parted in the middle similar to statues of Septimius Severus.

  Portrait Statue of the Emperor Balbinus as Jupiter
    Date:     c.238
    Material:     marble

Random Roman Senator appointed by Senate to be co-ruler with Pupienus when Maximinius Thrax was marching on Rome after Senate betrayed him and supported Gordians. Was in charge of civilian affairs while Pup in charge of military.

Was emperor for only 99 days during the year of the 6 emperors. Tortured to death by disaffected Praetorian guard with Pupienus in bathhouse (yeesh)

Balbinus as Jupiter, very similar to statue of Cladius as Jupiter. But body not of a classical type, more powerful physique as seen since reign of Caracalla. Need to project power of Roman Empire in statue in Greece at time when things are falling apart in 3rd c. No longer classical contrapposto, but feet firmly planted.

Portrait head of Trajan Decius: front view

Date: c.249-251 A.D

Location: Roman

Material: marble

Successor to Phillip the Arab, known for persecuting Christians. Short hair and drilled pupils like other portraits. Deep nasiolabal folds and lines in forehead are part of tradition of realistic portraiture, but also seem to convey the issues he is dealing with in his reign. Sad & serious boy

 Bronze statue of the emperor Trebonianus Gallus
    Work Type:     Statue of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus
    Period:     Imperial
    Date:     A.D. 251-253
    Material:     Bronze

One of few nearly complete Roman bronzes from 3rd c to survive until the present.

Now it is considered allowable for Roman elite men, even the emperor, to be depicted in a style of Greek heroic nudity, something which was unthinkable before. Classical Greek nudity, but bulky body and small head unlike proportions of Classical Greek and Hellenistic sculpture, perhaps physique meant to represent power of the emperor. Pose meant to emulate that of Alexander the Great with a Spear by Lysippus. Tradition of Hellenistic kingship, would have held a spear in raised right hand and short sword in his left.

Trebonianus Gallus co-emperor with his son for only 2 years. Killed in battle with Goths in 253.

Colossal Heroized Statue of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus: det.: Head, front view
    Date:     c.251-253
    Material:     bronze

Typical short hair and drilled pupils of imperial portraiture. Furrowed brow of Caracalla. Not a drilled beard.

Portrait of Probus: 3/4 view
    Date:     c.276-282 A.D
    Location:     Roman
    Material:     marble
    Description:     Over life-size

Born in Pannonia Inferoria, or modern Serbia. Another military emperor, has close-cropped hair. Also had sad, serious look of Decius with deep nasiolabal folds, forehead wrinkles, and eyebags. Seems affected by difficult times. Successfully shored up borders of empire in Gaul, Danube and Egypt and affected to be a constitutional monarch like Augustus to the senate. Relatively popular but was killed in mutiny of his troops when preparing for Persian campaign.

Significant break in portraiture from previous emperors. Beard not deeply drilled, appears to look more at viewer than away. More squarish head shape, move toward more abstract imperial portraiture at end of 3rd c.

 Portrait bust of Julia Mamaea: front view
    Date:     c.230's

Drilled pupils, eyes looking away like contemporary portraiture. Hairstyle similar to Faustina the younger and Julia Domna.

Mother of young Alexander Severus, had a lot of power during his reign and traveled with him on military campaign.

Four Tetrarchs (two statues each of Augustus and Caesar embracing)
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     4th century

Projecting unity with empire divided between 4 tetrarchs by showing them hugging. Originally part of free-standing column

Diocletian was at Nicomedia, Maximian at Milan, Galerius at Thessaloniki, and Constantius at Trier.

Veristic true portrait of emperors no longer important. Now they all have similar faces, more symbolic of emperor than meant to really represent them. All have wrinkles in forehead, arched eyebrows, and blank stare. In military dress. Blocky heads and peak late Roman abstraction in imperial portraiture. Augustii have beards while Caesars are clean-shaven. All wearing round cap introduced by Diocletian.

Porphyry favored for imperial sculpture at this time as it showed power of the Roman empire since it needed to be quarried in Egyptian desert.

Portrait bust of an emperor (Licinius?) front, one of tetrarchs
    Date:     c.300-20 A.D
    Location:     Late Antique/Early Christian
    Material:     porphyry
    Description:     from Athribis

Veristic true portrait of emperors no longer important. Now they all have similar faces, more symbolic of emperor than meant to really represent them. All have wrinkles in forehead, arched eyebrows, and blank stare. In military dress. Blocky heads and peak late Roman abstraction in imperial portraiture. Augustii have beards while Caesars are clean-shaven. Bulls-eye eyes

Porphyry favored for imperial sculpture at this time as it showed power of the Roman empire since it needed to be quarried in Egyptian desert.

Emperor Constantine the Great (306-337 CE); marble head; fragment of a colossal statue from the Basilica of Constantine in Rome
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     early 4th c.
    Material:     marble

 Emperor Hadrian in a Cuirass, with his Foot on a Fallen Barbarian
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     c. 117-138 CE
    Material:     marble

Emperor Hadrian as imperator dressed in Cuirass like Prima Porta Augustus. Relief of cuirass completely unique to his portraits. Shows two victories crowning Athena who stands on she-wolf suckling Romulus and Remus. Shows victory of Roman + Greek world over barbarians. Stepping on barbarian type statue becomes pop in reign of Trajan

Portrait Head of Emperor Hadrian
    Date:     c.120 A.D
    Material:     marble

Rollockenfrisur Type (Rolled curls hairstyle). Lack of carved irises and younger features indicate it comes from earlier in his reign, perhaps on occasion of his 3rd consulship c. 120

 Relief of Domitius Ahenobarbus, detail; left side, scenes of a census.
    Work Type:     relief sculpture
    Date:     end of the 2nd century BCE
    Material:     marble

Not an altar, probably on base of monumental statue.

Unlike Hellenistic style of other panels, this panel is carved in Roman style and shows scene from daily Roman life, taking of census. Roman stylistic elements like hierarchy of scale.

Relief of Domitius Ahenobarbus, detail; left side, sacrificing a bull.
    Work Type:     relief sculpture
    Date:     end of the 2nd century BCE
    Material:     marble

Unlike Hellenistic style of other panels, this panel is carved in Roman style and shows Roman religious ceremony. Shows an altar flanked by Mars on the left. Depicting gods and humans in same scene a Roman convention along with hierarchy of scale. On right is religious officiant capite velato and a bull is being led in sacrifice with sheep and pig following out of this frame in suovetaurilia sacrifice traditionally made to Mars.

Relief of Domitius Ahenobarbus, detail; right side, bull and ram to be sacrificed to Mars
    Work Type:     relief sculpture
    Date:     end of the 2nd century BCE
    Material:     marble

Unlike Hellenistic style of other panels, this panel is carved in Roman style and shows Roman religious ceremony. Shows an altar flanked by Mars on the left. Depicting gods and humans in same scene a Roman convention along with hierarchy of scale. On right is religious officiant capite velato and a bull is being led in sacrifice with sheep and pig following out of this frame in suovetaurilia sacrifice traditionally made to Mars.

Ara Pacis
    Title:     detail of the south frieze showing the procession of the imperial family, with Agrippa and Livia on the left
    Date:     13 - 9 BCE
    Material:     marble

Family now important to cementing Julio-Claudian dynasty. Women and children represented for first time in public art.

Ara Pacis
    Title:     Panel of Tellus from the east facade
    Date:     13 - 9 BCE
    Material:     marble

Abundance of Rome under the Augustan peace. Like Tellus on breastplate on Prima Porta Augustus

Ara Pacis Augustae
    Title:     detail, Aeneas sacrificing to the Penates
    Work Type:     relief sculpture
    Date:     commissioned 13 BCE, consecrated 9 BCE

Piety of Aeneas, sacrifice of piglets discussed in Vergil. Like capite velato statue of Augustus.

Tomb of the Haterii: relief: lying in state
    Date:     c.80-90 A.D
    Location:     Roman
    Material:     marble
    Description:     Late Flavian or early Trajanic

Non-imperial relief sculpture. Show continuity of traditonal Italic sculptural subjects and traditions. Depicts collocatio, lying out in state of the deceased subject of Etruscan art, but only known example of it in Roman art. Italic convention of hierarchy of scale. Deceased woman is laid out in atrium as indicated by architectural details. Is largest because she is most important, immediate family next largest behind her lectus. Family on an inconsistent groundline, common in Italic sculpture.

Tomb of the Haterii
    Title:     view of the tomb-crane relief
    Work Type:     sculpture
    Date:     c. 100 CE
    Style Period:     late Flavian or early Trajanic
    Description:     The tomb stood in a walled funerary garden ornamented with sculpture; it was carved with sepulchral inscriptions identifying its patrons, Quintus Haterius and his wife, as freedmen and was decorated with portrait busts and reliefs. The tomb was first discovered in 1848 on the Via Labicana, a few miles from the Porta Maggiore; it was rediscovered in 1969-1970.

Delphi (Extinct city)
    Repository:     Mouseion ton Delphon
    Subject:     Delphi (Extinct city)--Monument of Aemilius Paulus

c. 167 BCE

Monument started by Macedonian King Perseus, taken over by Roman general Aemilius Paulus to celebrate his defeat.

Sculpted by Greek sculptors, pivotal moment in elite Roman interest in Greek art.

Relief frieze shows battle of Pydna on all 4 sides of pillar. Stylistic similarities of battle scene to temple of Athena Nike in Athens. Diagonals show dynamic movement, transmitting Greek artistic conventions into Roman world.

Iconography of weapons, armor, and shields differentiate opposing sides. Riderless horse event that started battle. Synoptic narrative with different events in same scene like Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus.

Roman calvalryman 2nd from left may be Aemilius Paulus himself, has aged and individualized features. 2 most important genres of sculpture in Late Rep in one relief: historical narrative and veristic portraiture.

Ahenobarbus Base: Procession of Poseidon & Amphitrite Relief: det.
    Date:     c.100 B.C
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Republican--509-27 B.C

Carved in Hellenistic style like altar of Pergamon. Deep relief with bodies rendered in anatomical detail. Hellenistic interest in dramatic composition with twisting figures, dynamic movement, and expressive faces. Shows scene from Greek myth, wedding of Zeus and Amphitre.

Ahenobarbus Base: Procession of Poseidon & Amphitrite Relief: det.
    Date:     c.100 B.C
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Republican--509-27 B.C

Carved in Hellenistic style like altar of Pergamon. Deep relief with bodies rendered in anatomical detail. Hellenistic interest in dramatic composition with twisting figures, dynamic movement, and expressive faces. Shows scene from Greek myth, wedding of Zeus and Amphitre.

Altar of the Lares: apotheosis of the Divus Iulius
    Date:     c.7 B.C
    Location:     Roman Italy
    Subject:     Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 63 B.C.-14 A.D

From reign of Augustus, showing divinity of JC, borne away by Caerus, sky god, probably Augustus in quadriga with Julia and her two sons, his heirs, standing to the side.

 Arch of Augustus, north front, detail, frieze with sacrifice (suovetaurilia), Susa arch of Augustus
    Work Type:     architecture
    Date:     c. 9 BCE

Spare decorations, shows suovetaurilia accompanying signing of a treaty. Augustus at center with crab claw hairstyle. Not commissioned by Emperor himself because not in classicizing style he preferred, more of a local stone carving style combined with Augustan form of triumphal arch.

 North Gate (Arch of Tiberius), north front, detail: Panel above the east passage, with captured Weapons
    Work Type:     relief
    Date:     c. 25 CE

Location: Orange, France

Triumphal arch in Gaul often decorated with captured enemies and armor. Triple bay arch. Narrative relief of war with Romans and Gauls showing Roman domination. Dense composition a feature of Gaullic arch reliefs.

   "Les Antiques", Mausoleum Cenotaph Of Julii
    Title:     inspired by the Amazonomachy, the mythical war between the Greeks and the Amazons, it shows a warrior taking trophies from a dead enemy.
    Date:     1st century BC
    Location:     Glanum (St. Remy), France
    Style Period:     Roman Empire
    Description:     The first inhabitants settled here in the 6th and 7th centuries BC. Subsequent relations with the Greek world brought wealth to the inhabitants of Glanum, resulting in the extension of the inhabited zone and the construction of buildings in the Hellenistic style in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Then Glanum became a Roman colony in the very early years of Augustus' reign. The Cenotaph of the Julii dates from ca. 20 BC. It is one of the best preserved in the Roman world. It bears and inscription and has an unusual tiered form. Its pedestal is carved with historical and mythical reliefs.

Eclectic style mixing Greek myth Amazonomachy with Roman soldiers, characteristic of Roman provincial style.

    Title:     "Les Antiques", Mausoleum Cenotaph Of Julii
    Title:     Roman bas-relief showing the legend of the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, conducted by Meleager, with Castor and Pollux shown on horseback
    Date:     1st century BC
    Date:     07.06.2009
    Location:     Glanum (St. Remy), France
    Style Period:     Roman Empire
    Description:     The first inhabitants settled here in the 6th and 7th centuries BC. Subsequent relations with the Greek world brought wealth to the inhabitants of Glanum, resulting in the extension of the inhabited zone and the construction of buildings in the Hellenistic style in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC. Then Glanum became a Roman colony in the very early years of Augustus' reign. The Cenotaph of the Julii dates from ca. 20 BC. It is one of the best preserved in the Roman world. It bears and inscription and has an unusual tiered form. Its pedestal is carved with historical and mythical reliefs.

  'Suovetaurilia'
    Work Type:     relief sculpture
    Date:     c. 15-16 CE
    Material:     marble
    Measurements:     87 x 200 cm
    Description:     Fragment of an architectural relief depicting a sacrifice to Mars. From Champ-de-Mars.

Tiberian relief sculpture carries on tradition of Augustan relief sculpture. Procession like Ara Pacis. Toga clad men, priest capite velato, suovetaurilia. Two priests thought to be Augustus and Tiberius. Laurel references Augustus.

Dynastic Relief from a Claudian Monument (Apotheosis of Augustus) from Ravenna
    Date:     c. 45 - 50
    Material:     marble

New genre of dynastic portraiture begun by Augustus and continued under Claudius, the Julio-Claudian dynasty depicted in this relief. Far right is Divus Julius who had a star on his forehead, to his L is Livia who Claudius deified in form of Venus Genetrix. Two left figs unknown.

Ara Pietatis: fragment of precinct wall with relief of members of Julio-Claudian Family
    Title:     Altar of the Gens Iulia
    Work Type:     altar
    Date:     43 A.D
    Location:     Roman
    Location:     Roman Italy
    Material:     marble
    Description:     Commissioned in 22 A.D. by Tiberius to commemorate Livia's recovery from illness and completed under Claudius, showing his piety to his family. Sacrifice scenes before temple of Mars Ultor in the Forum Augustum. Temple large so pedimental scene can identify it. Not classical proportions as people same size as temple.

Arch of Titus: "Triumph of the Emperor Titus," detail of relief from inner face of arch on north side
    Date:     ca. 81
    Location:     Forum, Rome, Italy
    Material:     marble

Triumph of Titus panel showing Titus in his quadriga in triumph down via sacra, road along which arch is erected. Rejects earlier bas relief of Augustan relief carving in favor of deeper relief. Allegory of victory crowning Titus while a female personification of Rome leads the horses. Greek isocephaly sculptural convention.

Spoils from the Temple in Jerusalem, relief from the Arch of Titus
    Date:     ca. 81 C.E. [A.D.]
    Location:     Rome, Italy
    Material:     marble

Built by Diocletion. Scene commemorating victory of his now divine father Vespasian and brother Titus in putting down the Jewish rebellion. Tying himself to more powerful members of the dynasty. Carrying loot from the Second Temple that would be displayed in the Templum Pacis

Cancelleria Reliefs: Panel A Adventus of Vespasian to Rome, Received by Domitian
    Date:     81-96 A.D
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Domitian, Emperor of Rome, 51-96

Cancelleria Reliefs: Panel A Adventus of Domitian
    Date:     81-96 A.D
    Material:     marble

  Rome: Column of Trajan: Scene 145: Capture and suicide of Decebalus
    Date:     dedicated 113 A.D
    Location:     Rome
    Description:     Forum of Trajan

Benevento: Arch of Trajan: Ext.: passageway: relief: establishment of the Alimentaria
    Title:     Porta Aurea
    Title:     Arch of Trajan
    Date:     114 A.D

Benevento: Arch of Trajan: Ext.: south attic relief: capitoline triad
    Title:     Porta Aurea
    Title:     Arch of Trajan
    Date:     114 A.D

  Benevento: Arch of Trajan: Ext.: South: attic reliefs: adventus of Trajan
    Title:     Porta Aurea
    Title:     Arch of Trajan
    Date:     114 A.D

 Rome: Arch of Constantine: Int.: central passageway: "Trajan Assaulting the Dacians": from Great Trajanic Frieze
    Title:     Arch of Constantine
    Date:     c.107-114 A.D
    Location:     Rome

Rome: Arch of Constantine: Int.: central passageway: "Trajan Crowned by Victory" from Great Trajanic Frieze
    Title:     Arch of Constantine
    Date:     c.107-114 A.D
    Location:     Rome

Anaglypha Traiani: Parapet with Scenes of Imperial Benefaction Overall View
    Date:     c.120 A.D
    Material:     marble
    Subject:     Sculpture--Roman: Hadrian--117-138 A.D