Lecture 12 - The UN and Peacekeeping

UN Emergency Force (UNEF) (2)

• In 1956, to facilitate disengagement of British, French, + Israeli troops from Egypt following the Suez Crisis, a multilateral armed force dispatched to help keep peace until a pol settlement could be reached

• Egypt requests UNEF withdrawal in May 1967 → possibly to attack Israel, then Israel attacked with the 6-day war

United Nations (4)

• Created in June 1945

• Original membership 51 states (now 193) - pro-western orientation has disappeared

• Primary mandate, as espoused in UN Charter, is maintaining int peace + security

• Security Council pre-eminent organ responsible for maintaining int order

How maintain int peace + security

All refrain in their int relations from threat or use of force against territorial integrity or pol independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with Purposes of the UN

Boundaries to the prohibition of the use of force (5)

• Prohibition against the use of force does not cover all situations

• Sovereign states can use force within their territory

• Some theorists believe state may be able to use force outside its territory, e.g. force used for humanitarian purposes / protect citizens of intervening state who are living abroad

• However, UN Charter does not acknowledge these situations as exceptions to prohibition against the use of force

• R2P is not included

Self-defense (4)

• Self-defense must be necessary + proportionate to aggression

• When a state faces an imminent attack, it may have right to act in anticipatory self-defense

  • Article 51 + other provisions of the UN Charter do not address this situation

  • However, customary int law recognizes right of anticipatory self-defense when armed attack is imminent + inevitable - BUT how to know it is anticipatory (e.g. Israel launching attack ag Egypt after withdrawal from UNEF)

UN Security Council (4)

• 5 permanent members (P5) w/ veto rights

• Until 1965 six rotating members

• After 1965 ten rotating members

• For a resolution to pass, at least 9 votes for and no P5 votes against

Security Council Powers (5)

• Chapter VI (Pacific Settlement of Disputes)

• Chapter VII (Action w Respect to Threats to Peace, Breaches of Peace, + Acts of Aggression)

• Chapter VIII (Regional Arrangements)

• Peacekeeping originally called “Chapter VI + a half” operations

  • Not explicitly mentioned in UN Charter

Chapter VI (Pacific Settlement of Disputes)

Sec Council authorized to call disputing parties to resolve their conflict through peaceful means such as fact-finding, good offices, negotiation, arbitration + judicial settlement

Chapter VII (Action w Respect to Threats to Peace, Breaches of Peace, + Acts of Aggression) (2)

• Grants Council coercive authority – can compel compliance w decisions binding on member states → e.g. granting Africa Union coercive action

• It may impose diplomatic + econ sanctions + authorize mili force

Chapter VIII (Regional Arrangements) (2)

• Encourages regional org to engage in peaceful dispute settlement + requires Council’s authorization before taking coercive action

• Grants Council power to delegate enforcement to regional bodies

Use of force Chapter VII

• Sec Council … “may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain/ restore int peace + security - incl demonstrations, blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of UN

• Allows peacekeeping operations

What are peace keeping operations (4)

• Range from small observation + monitoring missions to peacebuilding in conflict-afflicted societies

• Og role of peacekeepers was to serve as buffer forces + observers - just keep two forces apart

• Usually small-scale under Chapter VI

• Some exceptions occur under Chapter VII: e.g. use of force authorized in Korean War, 20k strong peacekeeping force in Congo/Katanga

United Nations Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO) (3)

• First peacekeeping mission created in 1948 to monitor ceasefires after first Arab-Israeli war

• Unarmed mili observers

• Still monitors ceasefire agreements in Lebanon, Golan Heights, Sinai

Peacekeeping 5 Principles

• UN-mandated missions

• Consent of parties to the mission

• Impartiality (not aligned to either part of conflict)

• Voluntary troop contributions

• Minimum use of force - only in self-defense unless authorized

Cold War Peacekeeping (7)

• UN Emergency Force (Sinai)

• UN Observation Group in Lebanon

• UN Operation in Congo

• UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus

• UN India-Pakistan Observation Mission

• UN Interim Force in Lebanon

• Small-scale except Congo + most peaceful

UN in Post-Cold War (5)

• UN invokes Chapter VII authorizing mili force (US-led coalition) to remove Iraqi troops from Kuwait

• UNPROFOR in Bosnia is UN’s largest peacekeeping mission

• New missions in Afghanistan, Cambodia, Angola, Namibia, El Salvador + Nicaragua – then to Bosnia, Somalia, Rwanda, Kosovo, Haiti, Democratic Republic of Congo, etc.

• Shift from peacekeeping to peace enforcement

• Second gen peacekeeping incl electoral assistance, HR monitoring

Peacekeepign evolutions (4)

• UN Sec-General Boutros-Ghali in 1992 called for establishment of “peace-enforcement units” to deal w challenges that exceed peacekeeping, but such units never been created

• National + multinational forces, such as NATO, have sometimes been called instead to assist UN peacekeeping operations w enforcement

• By 2010, nearly 100,000 uniformed personnel in the field (up from 14,000 in 1998),UN was 2nd only to US in N of deployed armed forces under its command

• N peacekeeping operations undertaken by regional org doubled between 1995-2005. The African Union (AU), Econ Community of West African States (ECOWAS), EU, NATO, + Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) all launched major peacekeeping operations of their own in that period


Peacemaking (3)

• Measures to address conflicts in progress + usually involves diplomatic action to bring hostile parties to a negotiated settlement

• Involves negotiation, mediation, + demo decision-making processes

• Unlike peacekeeping, peacemaking uses mutual dialogue to agreement ab how solve immediate problem so removing parties’ incentives to use violence

Peacekeeping defintion

Deployment of national or multinational (+c common) forces for purpose of helping to control + resolve an actual or potential armed conflict between or within states

Peacekeeping (5)

• Most undertaken w authorization of + often led by, UN but regional org may also conduct peacekeeping operations + in some cases single states have undertaken such operations as well

• Peacekeeping forces normally deployed w consent of parties to a conflict + in support of a ceasefire

• Peacekeeping forces usually unarmed / only lightly armed + use min of force necessary

• Involves efforts to stop / limit harmful symptoms of escalated conflict—direct violence (such as abuse/ attack) or potential violence—+ establish sufficient safety to enable efforts toward preventing further violence

• Does not right wrongs or address conflicts causing violence

Peace enforcement (2)

• Refers to use of mili assets to enforce a peace against will of parties to a conflict when, for instance, ceasefire has failed

• Peace enforcement often exceeds capacity of peacekeeping forces + is better executed by more heavily armed forces

Peacebuilding (2)

• Measures targeted to reduce risk of relapsing into conflict by strengthening national capacities for conflict management + to lay foundation for sustainable peace + development

• Transformation of social rels - repairing systemic factors that were causing + exacerbating harmful conflict

Econ sanctions and Int Criminal Prosecution (3)

• In addition to mili force, Security Council also uses non-military coercion

• Sanctions on Iraq, al-Aqaeda + ISIS

• Criminal tribunals – esp. former Yugoslavia + Rwanda

Peacekeeping origins (3)

• League of Nations brought in to resolve territorial dispute between Colombia + Peru, 1933-34

• League appointed 3 member nations (Guatemala, Ireland + Spain) as a ‘Commission for Administration of the Territory of Leticia’

• Each side’s mili forces were withdrawn + an int force of Colombian troops under Commission’s supervision policed disputed area

League of Nations peacekeeping forces (3)

• Territories of Saar basin, formerly part of Germany, placed under administration of LON for period of 15 years

• At end of 15 years, a plebiscite was to be held to determine final status of Saar

• An int police force, composed of soldiers from Britain, NL, Italy, + Sweden, was deployed to maintain order on day of plebiscite

Covenant of the League of Nations (3)

• Article 10 = In case of aggression or in case of threat or danger of aggression Council shall advise upon means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.

• Article 16 = undertake immediately to subject it to severance of all trade or financial rels, prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals + nationals of covenant-breaking State + prevention of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse

• Article 16 = recommend what effective mili, naval or air force Members of League shall severally contribute to armed forces to be used to protect covenants of the League.

Weakness of the League of Nation Covenant (4)

• Intended to prevent states from going to war, final sanction was threat of force

• Ultimate authority rested on mobilization of world opinion

• Belief that threat of econ sanctions, alone, would be sufficient to deter states from aggression

• Article 16 reflected experience of WWI when blockade weapon had been used to good effect

League of Nations end (5)

• League acted as arbitrator in disputes + established commissions to investigate problems

• Where aggression found, sanctions could follow

• 2 events that led to its end

  • Japanese 1931 seizure Manchuria

  • Abyssinia (Ethiopia)

Japanese 1931 seizure Manchuria (4)

• Japanese 1931 seizure of Manchuria sanctions were not used

• Special Assembly voted Japan should withdraw from Manchuria.

• When Japanese refused + left the LON, League responded by reprimanding Japan

• The floodgates open … - letting it get away with it what it means for everyone else

Abyssinia (Ethiopia) (5)

• 1935 Italian invasion, limited sanctions imposed

• Not applied by all member nations + did not incl some key products such as oil

• League made no attempt to limit Italy’s ability to wage war, such as closing Suez Canal to Italian shipping - esp due to powers like UK + France wanting friendly rels

• Sanctions dropped following Italian conquest of Abyssinia in 1936

• Leads to widespread belief that LON unwilling or unable to use collective force to prevent conflicts

Winning the war on war (4)

• Controversial book describes decline of war, effectiveness of peacekeeping, + causal connection between them

• According to Goldstein, the UN:

  • “lies at heart of war on war”

  • Is “central thread” in reducing levels of violence in conflict-ridden countries + keeping peace in many postwar societies

UN Peacekeeping and the Decline of War (2)

• There is no question that UN played an important role in helping to shut down some deadly conflicts over past six decades

• BUT … - Arguments against

UN Peacekeeping and the Decline of War - Arguments against (5)

• UN deals w consequences of war, not onset of war

• Hard for peacekeeping to explain long-term downward trend in war given its relatively recent invention

• Peacekeeping has been shown to be effective at preventing resumption of specific wars, its effects on overall level of war in world not clear

• Consent of parties means peacekeeping "works" when it is not needed + “fails” when it is needed most

• Availability of peacekeeping to maintain peace once achieved probably allows some wars to end that would otherwise last longer

Is peacekeeping counterproductive (2)

• Wars that end w clear victory lead to more stable peace than inconclusive wars

• Peacekeeping by allowing wars to end sooner, but less decisively, may leave issues that would otherwise be resolved, eventually leading to repeated fighting that would otherwise not occur

Did the UN promote peace during the Cold War? (3)

• Did not have a significant effect on rels between superpowers

• Virtually powerless when it tried to push policy that one of superpowers opposed

• Serve as a convenient forum for seeking int legitimacy, 3d party mediation + dealing w issues superpowers were mainly indifferent to or had common interest in resolving

UN after the Cold War (5)

• Some successes but many failures …

• NATO did not initially (then yes) have UN support in 1999 when it went to war w Serbia over Kosovo

• When US could not get UN's permission to invade Iraq in 2003, it simply ignored UN

• After Hussein overthrown, UN becomes involved in post-war reconstruction (UNSCR 1483)

• UN unable to check Russian aggression against Ukraine in 2014/2022

Right to Protect (R2P) (5)

• Calls for initiating wars against countries that commit serious crimes against own civilian pop

• Goes beyond peacekeeping + can only be implemented under UN

• If major powers get serious about this doctrine, there should surely be a significant inc in N of wars fought in future

• However, R2P not likely to gain much traction, simply because it will be diff to get Sec Council to sanction R2P operations

  • Occurred w Chinese + Russian opposition to intervention in Syria

Key failures of UN Post Cold War (3)

• Srebrenica

• Rwanda genocide

• → reinforced need of org like NATO w heavy mili power to deal w these(

Srebrenica (6)

• Town designated a safe area by UN + protected by Dutch peacekeepers

• Dutch forces were under supplied/equipped + its superiors at UN unwilling to give it + support

• 1995, Dutch forces confronted by advancing Bosnia Serb

  Massacre of 8,000 Bosnian Muslim men + boys by Bosnian Serb forces

• Ethnic cleansing of 20k civilians

• Worst instance of mass murder since WWII

• 2014 Dutch court found Dutch gov liable for deaths of more than 300 Bosnian Muslims

Rwanda (5)

• UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) created in 1993 w mandate to oversee peace agreement ending civil war

• Following renewal of violence in 1994, UN reduces mili presence

• Onset of genocide, Commander Dallaire requests reinforcements but unsuccessful

• Limited forces to protect as many civilians as possible

• Reinforcements arrive in June but after 800,000 Tutsis killed

Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) (4)

• Launched July 2013

• Authorized size of 11,200 mili personnel + 1,440 police officers

• June 2023: mili junta in Mali request withdrawal of UN mission (MINUSMA)

• MINUSMA + MONUSCO represent 1/3 of all deployed UN peacekeeping personnel

Rise + Fall Peace missions (10)

• Until 2016 N UN operations inc 117k personnel deployed 16 oper

• After it begins to fall (now 11 peacekeeping missions)

  • Operations in Liberia, Haiti and Darfur end

  • Budget cuts

  • Security Council gridlock

• UN peacekeeping missions have steadily reduced in N + size

• Only several remaining (Central African Republic, South Sudan/Abyei region, Western Sahara)

• Coincides w request to end French mili mission + invitation to Wagner Group

• Demo Republic Congo terminates UN mission (MONUSCO)

  • UN troops deployed in Congo for 2 decades

Peacekeeping demographics (2)

• Early contributors mainly neutral countries (Ireland, Sweden, Yugoslavia, Austria) + others such as Canada

• Global South now provides most uniformed personnel - most imp is Bangladesh, followed Nepal + India

UNSCR 1325 (3)

• 2000 UNSC acknowledged changing nature of warfare + women continue to be excluded from participation in peace processes.

• Resolution esp addresses how women + girls disproportionally impacted by violent conflict + war + recognizes critical role that women can + already do play in peacebuilding efforts.

• UNSCR 1325 affirms that peace + security efforts are more sustainable when women are = partners in prevention of violent conflict, delivery of relief + recovery efforts + in forging of lasting peace

Women in Peacekeeping (3)

• Shift from all-male peacekeeping units to more female participation, incl all-female police units

• Focus on protecting women in post-conflict societies

• By 2020, 1/3 of peace operations personnel were women

• Many sex scandals of rape + sexual abuse in peacekeeping

African-led Peacekeeping (5)

• Inc shift from UN to African-led operations

• Reflects decreased UN legitimacy + preference for regional peacekeepers

• Occur under African Union (Somalia), ECOWAS (Liberia), + ad hoc coalitions (Multinational Joint Task Force in Lake Chad)

• Since 2000, 38 African-led peace support operations

• 10 active operations as of 2023

Other peacekeeping entities (8)

• NATO-led peacekeeping missions

  • Deployed to Bosnia (SFOR) + Kosovo (KFOR)

• EUFOR (Operation Althea)

  • Replaces NATO SFOR in Bosnia

• Russian peacekeepers

  • Deployed to maintain Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire between Armenia + Azerbaijan

• Neutral Nations Supervisory Commission - end Korean War

• Int Commission of Control + Supervision
- ad hoc for Vietnam

Elements of ceasefire deal in Ukraine (9)

• Ceasefire agreement

• Agree on ceasefire line

• Creation of Joint Mili Coord Commission

• Agreement on buffer zone + limitation zones for heavy weapons

• Int monitoring + verification mission (incl European troops?)

• Humanitarian demining

• Humanitarian corridors

• Security guarantees

• Build on ceasefire to achieve pol settlement

Preconditions for ceasefire (6)

• For Ukraine – legally binding security assurances?

• Confidence-building measures/de-escalation

  • No attacks on port infra

  • No attacks on civilian ships in Black Sea

  • No attacks on other critical infra, e.g. energy installations

  • No targeting of Ukrainian airports

Ceasefire Line

• Line of Contact/basis for a demili zone?

  • Demili zone implies a long-term de facto division of the country

  • Line Contact considered more of a transitional arrangement

• Buffer zone or zone of separation

  • Approx 10-15 km wide would be absent of mili forces, heavy + light weapons, as well no-fly zone for UAVs – except those of int monitors

  • Wider buffer zone

    • 50km for artillery of 100mm calibre or more

    • 75km for multiple rocket launchers

    • 150km for certain missile systems

    • Must be verifiable

    • Separate agreement needed for maritime security

International Monitoring + Verification (11)

• Requires clear mandate + assumption of a ceasefire

• Length ceasefire line prob 1200 km (5x length of Korean DMZ) – need to patrol 24/7

• Probably an int mission rather than UN one

• Core tasks incl monitor ceasefire and to verify withdrawal of troops + heavy weapons

• Large force interposing itself between Russian/Ukrainian forces unlikely (50k troops)

• Lighter force located on both sides of ceasefire line limited to monitoring + verification (15k troops)

• Int force equipped w armored vehicles, helicopters, light aircraft, UAVs

• Led by Force Commander reporting to UNSC

• Composition of force agreed to by both sides?

• If only civilian force, will either side have confidence in it?

• Indefinite commitment

Composition of force agreed to by both sides? (4)

• UN Force – blue berets?

• Will Russia accept troops from NATO countries, incl. NATO minus USA?

• Which countries are willing/able to send troops + viewed as impartial?

  • Global South?

Mili VS Civilian roles (7)

Military component

• Monitor implementation of ceasefire/report violations

• Verify withdrawal of heavy weapons

• Support de-mining

• Enable humanitarian corridors

Civilian component

• Monitor/report on HR violations

• Provide humanitarian assistance w focus on marginalized + vulnerable groups incl elderly, women, youth + children

• Provide medical/psychological assistance to pop (e.g. helping w PTSD)

Security guarantee (9)

• Ukraine will want guarantees it will receive mili (direct/indirect) + other support if Russia resumes aggression

  • What type of deterrent will be sufficient?

  • European troops stationed in Ukraine (tripwire force)

  • European troops stationed near Ukraine ready to intervene quickly?

  • European patrolled No Fly Zone?

  • More weapons – higher quality

  • New/renewed sanctions on Russia for ceasefire violations

• What will Russia demand?

  • No NATO troops in Ukraine?