AP PSYCH MIDTERM

dualism

mind and body are separate

Empiricism

all we know comes from experiences

Introspection

examination of one's own thoughts and feelings

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

central route persuasion

looks

peripheral route persuasion

logic

cognitive dissonance

Inner tension that a consumer experiences after recognizing an inconsistency between behavior and values or opinions

foot-in-the-door

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Deinviduation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

Norms

rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

prejudice

preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience

stereotypes

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

mere exposure effect

the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

recoprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

self-fufilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

hindsight bias

"I knew it all along"

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

population

entire group

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

Experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Placebo

something which has a positive mental effect, but no physical effect

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

cofounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

descriptive statistics

illustrates or summarizes

Mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

average

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

with Alzheimer's disease ACh-producing neurons deteriorate

Dopamine

influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

too much- schizophrenia

not enough- tremors & decreased mobility in Parkinson's disease

seotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

not enough- depression (some antidepressants raise serotonin levels)

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

not enough- can depress mood

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter.