Introduction to Psychology: Classical & Operant Conditioning, Learning Theories, and Observational Learning

Learning

Process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Acquisition

Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Extinction

Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS).

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

Generalization

Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli.

Coffee (in classical conditioning example)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) that makes a college student feel energized.

Energy (in classical conditioning example)

Unconditioned Response (UR) to the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) of coffee.

Coffee cup (in classical conditioning example)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) that elicits a response after conditioning.

Wish for caffeine (in classical conditioning example)

Conditioned Response (CR) to the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) of the coffee cup.

Watson

Psychologist influenced by Pavlov, known for his work in behaviorism.

Pavlov

Studied the digestive system and demonstrated associative learning via salivary conditioning.

Behaviorism

Psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Pavlov's Principles

Used to influence human health and well-being in areas such as consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, and therapy.

Addiction Counseling

Addicts are counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger cravings.

Taste and Immune Response

Pairing a particular taste with a drug that influences immune responses may eventually lead to a response from taste alone.

Watson's Ideas

Human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly conditioned responses.

Little Albert Study

Watson applied classical conditioning principles to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.

Operant Conditioning

Behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.

Skinner's Experiments

Expanded on Thorndike's law of effect and developed behavioral technology and principles of behavior control.

Skinner Box

A device designed for experiments where a rat presses a bar for a food reward, with a measuring device recording responses.

Reinforcement

Any event that strengthens a preceding response.

Shaping

Gradually guiding toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers.

Positive Reinforcer

Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Negative Reinforcement

Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli.

Negative Reinforcer

Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response.

Primary Reinforcer

Is unlearned; innately reinforcing stimuli.

Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer

Gains power through association with primary reinforcer.

Immediate Reinforcement

Occurs immediately after a behavior.

Delayed Reinforcement

Involves time delay between desired response and delivery of reward.

Reinforcement Schedule

Includes pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Involves reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Includes schedule reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforce first response after specific interval.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforced after every x responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforced after unpredictable number of responses.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforce first response after unpredictable interval.

Positive Punishment

Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in future.

Drawbacks of Physical Punishment

Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten; may teach fear; can increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

Used in schools, sports, workplaces, and at home to shape behavior.

Reinforcing Desired Behavior

State a realistic goal in measurable terms; monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior; decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal; reinforce the desired behavior; reduce the rewards gradually.

Response in Classical Conditioning

Involuntary, automatic.

Response in Operant Conditioning

Voluntary, operates on environment.

Acquisition in Classical Conditioning

Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS.

Acquisition in Operant Conditioning

Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher).

Extinction in Classical Conditioning

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone.

Extinction in Operant Conditioning

Responding decreases when reinforcement stops.

Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR.

Spontaneous Recovery in Operant Conditioning

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response.

Generalization in Classical Conditioning

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

Generalization in Operant Conditioning

Organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced.

Discrimination in Classical Conditioning

The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US.

Discrimination in Operant Conditioning

Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced.

Biological Constraints on Conditioning

Limits on classical conditioning.

Garcia and Koelling's Research

Animals and humans seem biologically prepared to learn some associations rather than others.

Cognitive Processes in Classical Conditioning

Mental information that guides behavior is acquired through cognitive learning.

Cognitive Processes in Operant Conditioning

Evidence of cognitive processes.

Observational Learning

Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others.

Bandura

Pioneer researcher of observational learning.

Vicarious Reinforcement

Reinforcement that occurs when an observer sees the model reinforced.

Vicarious Punishment

Punishment that occurs when an observer sees the model punished.

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so.

Prosocial Effects of Observational Learning

Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees.

Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning

Abusive parents may have aggressive children.

Correlation Studies

Studies that show relationships between variables but do not imply causation.

Experimental Studies

Studies that involve manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect.