The Regional States of Medieval Europe and Byzantium

Vocabulary flashcards covering the Holy Roman Empire, the Investiture Contest, regional states in Western Europe, and the decline and fall of the Byzantine Empire.

Holy Roman Empire

A regional state formed by German princes beginning in the late tenth century, viewed by them as a Christian revival of the earlier Roman empire.

Otto of Saxony

An aggressive tenth-century ruler who established himself as king in northern Germany and was proclaimed emperor by Pope John XII in 962 C.E.

Pope John XII

The pope who proclaimed Otto of Saxony emperor in 962 C.E. in appreciation for his aid to the church.

962 C.E.

The year Pope John XII crowned Otto of Saxony emperor, birthing the idea of the Holy Roman Empire.

Elbe River

The river east of which Otto of Saxony campaigned in lands populated by Slavic peoples.

Slavic Peoples

Inhabitants of lands east of the Elbe River (in modern eastern Germany, western Poland, and the Czech Republic) where Otto of Saxony campaigned.

Carolingian Empire

The empire whose fading during the ninth century led counts, dukes, and local authorities to take responsibility for regional order.

Investiture Contest

A controversy over the selection and appointment of church officials in the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries that demonstrated the papacy's power to weaken the Holy Roman Empire.

Lay Investiture

The practice of selection and installation of church officials by lay rulers such as emperors.

Pope Gregory VII

The pope (1073-1085 C.E.) who ordered an end to lay investiture to ensure clergy met spiritual criteria, resulting in a fierce struggle with Emperor Henry IV.

Emperor Henry IV

The Holy Roman Emperor (1056-1106 C.E.) who challenged Pope Gregory VII's ban on lay investiture and was excommunicated.

Excommunication of Emperor Henry IV

An action taken by Pope Gregory VII that stripped Henry IV of church rights and released his subjects from their duty to obey him.

Standing barefoot in the snow

The act performed by Emperor Henry IV to beseech Pope Gregory VII's mercy in order to regain control of his empire after German princes rebelled.

German Princes

Regional rulers who rebelled against Henry IV after his excommunication and won concessions that enhanced their independence and diminished imperial authority.

Papal Prerogative

The popes' claim that the selection of church officials was entirely their own right, leading to conflict with emperors who attempted to influence appointments.

Theme System

An administrative system that supported a powerful army and a prosperous independent peasantry in Byzantium for about three centuries before being undermined in the eleventh century.

Byzantine Peasantry

Formerly free independent peasants who were transformed into dependent agricultural laborers when wealthy landowners accumulated large estates.

Large Estates (Byzantine Empire)

Agricultural properties accumulated by wealthy landowners in the eleventh century, which reduced military incentives and tax receipts for the central Byzantine government.

Norman Adventurers

Descendants of Vikings who settled in northern France, carved out a regional state in southern Italy during the early eleventh century, and expelled Byzantine authorities.

Crusades

Vast military campaigns in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries intended to recapture Jerusalem and other holy sites from Muslim rule, during which westerners also plundered Byzantium.

Venetian Merchants

Prominent eastern Mediterranean traders who hijacked the Fourth Crusade to target Constantinople and eliminate Byzantine commercial competition.

Fourth Crusade

A crusade from 1202 to 1204 C.E. hijacked by Venetians, culminating in the conquest and devastating sack of Constantinople in 1204.

1204 C.E.

The year western crusaders conquered and subjected the Byzantine imperial capital of Constantinople to a devastating sack.

1261 C.E.

The year Byzantine forces managed to recapture Constantinople after its destruction in the Fourth Crusade.

Muslim Seljuqs

Nomadic Turkish peoples who invaded Anatolia in the eleventh century, defeated the Byzantine army, and eventually seized most of the region.

Anatolia

The agricultural heartland of the Byzantine empire, which was lost to Seljuq invaders and crusaders following internal decline and defeat.

Battle of Manzikert

A battle in 1071 C.E. in which Muslim Seljuqs delivered a demoralizing defeat to the Byzantine army, triggering Byzantine civil war.

1071 C.E.

The year the Byzantine army suffered a demoralizing defeat at the Battle of Manzikert against the Muslim Seljuqs.

Byzantine Civil War

Internal conflict that broke out among Byzantine forces after the Battle of Manzikert, giving the Seljuqs almost free rein in Anatolia.

Sultan Mehmed II

The twenty-one-year-old Ottoman leader who captured Constantinople in 1453 C.E. and absorbed Byzantium's remaining territories.

1453 C.E.

The year the Byzantine empire came to an end when Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople.

Constantinople

The imperial capital of Byzantium, which was sacked in 1204 C.E. by crusaders and eventually captured by Ottoman Turks in 1453 C.E.

Ottoman Turks

The Turkish group led by Sultan Mehmed II that captured Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine empire in 1453 C.E.

Political Mosaic

A phrase characterizing medieval Europe as a network of independent and competing regional states rather than a single unified empire.

French Monarchy (Medieval)

An independent monarchy that emerged in France as part of western European state-building initiatives.

English Monarchy (Medieval)

An independent monarchy that emerged in England alongside state-building processes in medieval Europe.

Italian Regional Authorities

Various local authorities, merchants, and popes who exercised governance across different regions of Italy.

Spanish Regional Authorities

Local authorities who ruled various regions in Spain as part of medieval Europe's system of regional states.

Russian and Eastern European States

New regional states whose emergence was influenced by the culture and legacy of the Byzantine empire.

Hegemonic State

A centralized, unified empire that energetic Holy Roman Emperors tried to establish in Europe but failed due to opposition from the papacy.

Papal-Imperial Tension

Strain between popes and emperors resulting from competing claims to authority in Christian Europe, official appointments, and Italian politics.

Papal Leadership in Italy

Political direction long provided by the popes in Italy, which led to friction whenever Holy Roman Emperors attempted to expand their influence there.

Higher Clergy

Bishops and church leaders who provided important political as well as religious services to Holy Roman imperial authorities.

Reign of Pope Gregory VII

The period from 1073 to 1085 C.E. marked by intense efforts to eliminate lay investiture and establish papal sovereignty over clergy appointments.

Reign of Emperor Henry IV

The period from 1056 to 1106 C.E. marked by conflict with Pope Gregory VII, excommunication, and rebellions by German princes.

Late Eleventh and Early Twelfth Centuries

The timeframe during which the Investiture Contest occurred, defining papal and imperial relations.

Early Eleventh Century (Normans)

The era when Norman adventurers established a state in southern Italy and ended Byzantine rule in that region.

Late Twelfth Century (Anatolia)

The period by which Muslim Seljuqs had taken control of most of Anatolia, leaving western crusaders holding much of the remainder.

Truncated Byzantium

The geographically reduced Byzantine empire that survived with diminished autonomy from the loss of Anatolia until its final fall in 1453 C.E.

Christian Revival of Roman Empire

The concept and ideological motivation held by German princes when forming the Holy Roman Empire starting in the late tenth century.