Studied by 5 people
Hormones
A chemical that is secreted by glands in the endocrine system --- Unlike neurotransmitters, they are released directly into the bloodstream --- May act as neurotransmitters and attach to post-synaptic receptor sites --- Cause more physical than emotional changes
Endocrine System
The system of glands that produce endocrine secretions that help to control bodily metabolic activity --- Drives large-scale changes across the body
Gland
An organ that makes and puts out hormones that do a specific job in your body
Adrenaline
Secreted by the adrenal glands; responsible for arousal and the "fight or flight" response. --- Activates acute stress response --- Increases the heart rate, blood pressure and respiration --- Plays a role in emotional memory formation --- Responsible for stimulating the sympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)
A network of nerves that helps your body activate its “fight-or-flight” response
Cortisol
Secreted by the adrenal glands; helps control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation and assist with memory formation --- Curbs function that would be nonessential or detrimental to "fight or flight" response (i.e. suppresses digestive system)
Melatonin
Secreted by the pineal gland; signals the relaxation and lower body temperature that help with a night of restful sleep.
Neuropeptide Y
Produced by the hypothalamus; acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Stimulates food intake, reduces anxiety and stress, reduces pain perception, affects the circadian rhythm. Higher levels of this appear to be linked to higher levels of resilience
Oxytocin
Produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland. When it affects the brain, it acts as a neurotransmitter. Plays a role in mother-child attachment; believed to play a role in social bonding and trust between people.
Testosterone
Produced by the testes; plays a facilitative role in aggressive behavior - that is, it doesn't cause aggression, but higher levels of it result in higher levels of aggression
Hormones vs. Neurotransmitters
Hormones = endocrine system --- Neurotransmitters = nervous system
Hormones are secreted into blood throughout the entire body --- Neurotransmitters are sent across the synaptic cleft
Effects of hormones are slower and can last longer --- Neurotransmitters transmit quickly and effects can be nearly instant
HPA Axis
Describes the interaction between the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are located just above the brainstem, while the adrenal glands are found on top of the kidneys.
Acute Stress Response
(also called hyperarousal, or the “fight or flight" response) is a physiological reaction that occurs in response to a perceived harmful event, attack, or threat to survival.
McGaugh & Cahill (1995) Adrenaline vs. Emotional memory
!! HORMONE STUDY !!
A - The aim of the study was to investigate the role of adrenaline and the amygdala in emotional memory.
M - Research method: Lab (true) experiment --- IV: Type of story told & ingestion of beta-blocker (Propranolol) --- DV: Recollection of story --- Design: Independent measures
P - Participants were divided into two groups. Each group saw 12 slides that were accompanied by a very different story. 1: The participant heard a rather boring story about a disaster preparation drill of a simulated accident victim. 2: The participant heard a story where the boy was involved in a car accident where his feet were severed, and then got the injured limbs reattached.
Two weeks after participating in the experiment the participants were asked to come back and their memory for specific details of the story was tested. --- The test was a recognition task that consisted of a series of questions on slides with three options for them to choose from. --- Ex. What was the job of the father of the boy in the story? (Janitor, lab technician, surgeon)
R - The participants who had heard the more emotionally arousing story demonstrated better recall of specific details of the story. They could also recall more details from the slides.
Follow-up study - Procedure was repeated, but this time the participants in the "traumatic story" condition were injected with a beta-blocker called propranolol. --- Beta-blockers interfere with adrenaline binding with receptors at the amygdala; this prevents the formation of an emotional memory. R - In the follow-up study, they found that those that had received the beta-blocker on the emotional story did no better than the group that had heard the "boring" story.
C - Adrenaline and activation of the amygdala play a significant role in the creation of memories linked to emotional arousal.
E - ✓ Cause-and-effect relationship, has been applied to PTSD patients, and proves effective. ⨉ Highly controlled and artificial (ecological validity), high replicability (reliability)
Newcomer (1999) Cortisol vs. Verbal declarative memory
!! HORMONE STUDY !!
A - To investigate the effect of cortisol on verbal declarative memory
M - Research method: Lab (true) experiment --- IV: Ingestion of cortisol --- DV: Level of verbal declarative memory --- Design: Independent measures --- Sample: Self-selected sample
P - Separated into 3 conditions 1: The participants were given a tablet containing 160mg of cortisol. This was intended to simulate the same effect as a major stress event. 2: The participants were given a tablet containing 40mg of cortisol. This was intended to simulate a low level stress event. 3: The participants were given a placebo tablet. The placebo was administered to reduce variables between the conditions. All three conditions were required to listen to a prose paragraph and then recall as much as possible.
This task was designed to test their verbal declarative memory. The experiment took place over four days with each condition being tested numerous times. The tablets were ingested each day.
R - It was found that participants in condition 1 scored lowest on the verbal declarative memory test. It was also found that this effect was temporary - the results of this condition returned to normal once they stopped taking the cortisol tablets. Participants in condition 2 (40mg cortisol) scored better than participants in condition 1 but worse than participants in the control condition (placebo). Participants in the placebo condition gradually got better at the task over time, unlike condition 1, who's results remained the same while they were taking the cortisol tablet. Participants in condition 2 showed slight improvement on the task over time.
C - Researchers concluded that high levels of cortisol have a negative impact on verbal declarative memory.
E - ✓ Ethics (excluded anyone with health conflicts) ⨉ Low ecological validity (Artificial nature: relationship between cortisol and memory in a real-life situation?), low generalizability
Pheromones
Chemical substances that are produced and released into the environment by some animals, mostly mammals or insects, affecting the behavior or physiology of other creatures.
Androstadienone (AND)
A human steroid that is present in male semen and sweat. It heightens sympathetic arousal, alters levels of cortisol, and promotes positive mood state in females, also found to activate the hypothalamus in heterosexual females and homosexual males, but not in heterosexual males or homosexual females.
Estratetraenol (EST)
A human steroid that is present in female urine. It heightens sympathetic arousal, alters levels of cortisol, and promotes positive mood state in males, also found to activate the hypothalamus in heterosexual males and homosexual females, but not in heterosexual females or homosexual males.
Lundstrom and Olsson (2005) - AND vs. Mood of women
!! PHEROMONE STUDY !!
A - Investigate the effect of androstadienone on the mood of women in the presence of men.
M - Double-blind experiment with 37 female participants (lab experiment)
P - The women's mood, their attention and how they rated attractiveness were tested after being exposed to either androstadienone or a control solution in the presence of either a male or female experimenter.
R - Exposure to a non-detectable amount of androstadienone modulated women's mood in a positive direction but did not change attention performance or rating of facial attractiveness. --- Moreover, mood effects were only evident when an experimenter of the opposite sex conducted the testing.
C - It appears that androstadienone could play a role in women's mood depending on social context, which supports its role as a pheromone.
Zhou (2014) - AND and EST vs. gender perception
!! PHEROMONE STUDY !!
A - Investigate the role of Androstadienone (AND) and Estratetraenol (EST) in conveying gender information
M - Lab experiment with 96 participants (24 heterosexual men, 24 heterosexual women, 24 gay men and 24 lesbian women.)
IV - the use of AND or EST
DV - behavior (rating of the stick figure)
P - Participants were asked to watch stick figures walking on a screen and to determine their gender. While carrying out the task, the participants were exposed to the smell of cloves. In the first condition, the cloves were mixed with AND, in the second condition, the cloves were mixed with EST, and in the control condition, only cloves were used. They performed the task at around the same time of the day on three consecutive days.
R - Smelling AND biased heterosexual females and gay males, but not heterosexual males, toward perceiving the walkers as more masculine. By contrast, smelling EST biases heterosexual males and lesbian women toward perceiving the walkers as more feminine.
C - Pheromones influence communication of gender information in a sex-specific manner.
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
A group of genes that play an important role in the immune system --- They take molecules that enable the immune system to recognize pathogens; in general, the more diverse the genes of the parents, the stronger the immune system of the offspring.
Wedekind (1995) - MHC vs. mate choice
!! PHEROMONE / EVOLUTION STUDY !!
A - To verify the hypothesis that people tend to favor ones with a different genetic makeup: whether one’s MHC would affect mate choice.
M - 49 female and 44 male students, double blind experiment
P - Men were asked to: sleep with the same t-shirt for 2 days, not use any perfume, refrain from alcohol, smoking, sexual activity, use given perfume-free detergents to wash clothes and perfume-free soap for showering, sleep alone, and avoid all odor-producing foods Women were tested whenever possible 2 weeks after menstruation, and were asked to: use nose spray for the 14 days to prevent cold or flu and regenerate nasal mucus, read a copy of Suskind’s novel "Perfume" to sensitize smell perception --- Women were asked to rank from 0-10 (pleasantness and sexiness), 5 being neutral, of the attraction of the smell from the boxes.
R - Preferred scents of MHC-dissimilar men --- Odors of MHC-dissimilar men remind the women more often of their own actual or former mates than do the odors of MHC-similar men. --- Women taking contraceptives found MHC-similar men’s odor more pleasant…?
C - MHC may influence mate choice.
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