3: Churchill and International diplomacy

Churchill's view Britain's role in the world

- Defender of democracy, freedom, civilised and Christian values

- English-speaking peoples', the Anglo-Saxon world community including the USA and the dominions in the Empire, had natural bonds

- saw Britain as a major world power that had entered the Second World War to maintain peace and to honour its obligations.

- a moral obligation to go to war, whatever the cost

- urged an alliance between the opponents of the expansionist powers, Germany, Italy and Japan.

United Nations

- The alliance during the war confirmed his belief in 'the United Nations', as the alliance was called, acting together to prevent aggression.

- The term 'United Nations' was later applied to the organisation formed aft the war to replace the League of Nations as a world bod for maintaining peace.

churchill though Britain was an extensive power because of...

its extensive empire.

he thought that the Empire would fight alongside Britain.

view on dominions vs colonies

White Dominions (e.g., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa):

• Relied on for wartime support – seen as loyal partners in the war effort.

• Viewed as having a natural bond of race and culture with Britain.

• Given greater respect and status — high-ranking military leaders were appointed from the Dominions.

• Considered part of the "family" of nations — treated as semi-independent allies.

Colonies (e.g., India, African and Caribbean colonies):

• Treated as inferior – valued mainly for resources and manpower, not political input.

• Britain had no intention of extending democracy to non-white colonies.

• Rhetoric of the war being fought for "freedom" and "democracy" did not apply to them.

• Racial hierarchy remained central to British imperial policy.

Atlantic charter

1941-Pledge signed by US president FDR and Churchill not to acquire new territory as a result of WWII and to work for peace after the war

USA were critical of the British empire

Churchill resented US concerns about maintaining the British Empire and restated his commitment to preserving it.

but even despite the Atlantic charter...

no plans to actually extend its democratic principles to those parts of the Empire which were not majority white.

what were the expectations of the colonies

• Provide troops, food, and raw materials to support the British war effort.

• No concessions or promises of greater self-government were offered.

• British rule in India was strictly enforced; Quit India leaders were imprisoned.

• No wartime commitment to independence for any colony.

• British actions during the Bengal Famine of 1943 remain controversial.

• Churchill aimed to reassert British imperial dominance after Japan’s defeat.

• No intention to grant independence to India, Malaya, or Singapore.

when did India gain independence

August 1947

role of Britain after 1945

- The pivotal role that Britain played in standing alone against Hitler in 1940 gave Britain huge prestige.

- Churchill used this to ensure that Britain played a part in world affairs which was greater than her resources or her contribution to the war effort really justified.

Quit India campaign

- The movement included boycotting the British government and rejection of transactions involving the government

- The British arrested tens of thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until 1945.

Britain's world position by 1941

- Maintained the colonies and links with the Empire

- Sustained an alliance with the USA and the USSR, playing a major role in determining the way the war was fought

- Conscious of being forced to subordinate some key decisions to the USA and having to make concessions to the USSR from 1943, Churchill did his best to maintain British influence in the final years of the

Ways in which Britain was strong in the war (3)

- The USA was persuaded not to prioritise the Pacific war, but to follow British ideas of waging war in the Mediterranean.

- The great losses of the USSR were not matched by Britain, yet the alliance was maintained.

- Despite agreeing to the Atlantic Charter of 1941, affirming democracy and self-government as a principle, Britain was not forced to make any commitment to end its empire for US support.

ways in which Britain was strong after the war?

- Britain was a leader in establishing the United Nations, and the first meetings of the Security Council and the General Assembly were held in London.

- His speech in the USA referring to the Iron Curtain' saw the continuing need of Churchill to dramatise conflict and ensure that Britain was occupying the moral high ground.

- He did promote European unity, wishing Britain to take the lead in ending hatred in Europe and encouraging co-operation.

- However, he saw Britain as having a unique position because of its history of involvement in European affairs; its special relationship with the USA and its worldwide Empire.

Losses of the USSR during the war:

9 million soldiers killed, 13 million civilian deaths

Total British deaths during the war:

452,000

Total US deaths during the war

420,000

How many deaths in Stalingrad?

1 million

How was the relationship between Churchill and Roosevelt?

The personal relationship between Churchill and Roosevelt was seen as the 'partnership that saved the West' and Churchill worked very hard to maintain it, however it began badly.

What was the USA's attitude towards the war in 1939? (2)

- Roosevelt stressed US isolationism at the time of the presidential election of 1940, which Churchill disliked

- Support but non-intervention

When did the USA repeal the Neutrality Act?

November 1939

Why did the USA repeal the Neutrality Act?

It allowed Britain to purchase American arms.

What did the USA do in October 1939?

They declared a neutral zone along the coast of the USA and South America, which their navy patrolled to prevent sinking of merchant ships by the Germans.

What was the Lend-Lease Act?

Led to $31.6 billion of assistance going to the UK by 1945

When was the Lend-Lease Act?

March 1941

In ________________, _______ old US destroyers were exchanged with Britain for leases to _____ British naval bases.

September 1940

50

8

When did Roosevelt use the phrase 'arsenal of democracy' to defend the sale of arms to Britain?

December 1940

In _________, US troops occupied Greenland and, on _________, Iceland, in order to stop Germany using either of them as a military base.

April 1941

1st July 1941

When and where was the first meeting of Churchill and Roosevelt?

In Placentia Bay in Canada in August 1941. This is where the Atlantic Charter was formed.

What was the Atlantic Charter? (3)

- Confirmed neither the US nor Britain wanted territorial gains

- They committed to peace, disarmament and democracy.

- Committed to free elections in Europe

What was the US concerned about before entering the war? (4)

- US military chiefs were concerned that Britain was dispersing its forces by fighting in North Africa instead of getting ready for an invasion of France

- The State Department was concerned that Britain would want to gain territories that it had in 1919 from Turkish and German colonies.

- The secretary of state, Cordell Hull, was concerned that the British empire stood in the way of World free trade

- Roosevelt thought colonialism was morally wrong.

How did the US benefit from the war (before entering)? (3)

- The destroyers provided by the USA were obsolete

- The USA took Britain's gold reserves in South Africa as security for Lend-Lease payments.

- The USA made large profits from supplying arms

When did the USA enter the war?

On the 7th December 1941, Japan attacked the US pacific fleet in Pearl Harbour, and Hitler made his greatest mistake of declaring war on the USA.

Events following Pearl Harbour (5)

- Churchill went to Washington soon after and made a positive impression, making American inclined to see Churchill as a heroic figure

- US General Marshall did not get his way as there was no invasion of France until 1944.

- The US also supported Churchill's strategy of fighting mainly in the Middle East

- The US supported the policy of 'Europe First' defeating Germany before Japan

- Britain was now in a Grand Alliance of 26 nations.

main post war policies that churchill was part of from 1941-45

Churchill devoted considerable time to conferences between 1941 and 1945.

- Policies about post war Europe:

- Commitment to democracy as a war aim and the policy of unconditional surrender emerged from conferences with the USA.

- The Mediterranean Strategy was accepted by the USA as the major way forward in war planning.

- The decision to set D-Day in 1944 was another key decision.

- Churchill agreed with Stalin in 1944 in a Moscow meeting about spheres of influence in eastern Europe.

- The division of Germany after the war was finalised at conferences at Yalta and Potsdam.

The decision to establish a United Nations emerged from the Yalta Conference.

Stalin's declaration of war on Japan was decided at Yalta.

- relations with both Roosevelt and Stalin helped to ensure that a Grand Alliance was maintained

- USA shared its major weapon development - the atomic bomb - with Britain.

Meetings between Churchill and Roosevelt in New York and Washington (3)

- June 1942

- There he persuaded the USA against 'Operation Sledgehammer', an invasion of France to take pressure of the Russians

- Instead he promoted the idea for a joint campaign in North Africa.

why were these post war policies astounding?

As Britain's contribution to the war effort was significantly less than either that of the USA or the

USSR, these could be seen as major achievements

where did churchill have less influence than he would have liked though? TEHRAN

• Second Front in Western Europe:

  • Churchill preferred launching the invasion through the Balkans (to limit Soviet influence in Eastern Europe).

  • Roosevelt and Stalin overruled him, agreeing instead to launch Operation Overlord (the D-Day invasion of northern France) in 1944.

• US–USSR Relationship:

  • Roosevelt appeared to side more with Stalin than with Churchill, seeking a stronger US–Soviet partnership.

  • This marginalised Britain, reducing Churchill's influence on key decisions.

• Post-war Eastern Europe:

  • Churchill was concerned about Soviet expansion into Eastern Europe but Stalin’s intentions were not seriously challenged by Roosevelt.

  • This foreshadowed future tensions in the Cold War.

where did churchill have less influence than he would have liked though? YALTA

• Churchill had to accept Stalin’s demands about the return of Soviet prisoners of war who had fought for Germany. Even though it was known these POWs would likely be imprisoned or executed upon return, Churchill had little power to stop this because he needed to keep the alliance with the USSR strong.

• Stalin delayed joining the war against Japan until he was certain Japan was losing. He wanted to enter the war at the right moment to gain territory and influence in Asia, which could come at Britain’s expense. Churchill could not prevent this strategic timing.

Meeting between Churchill and Roosevelt in Casablanca (2)

- January 1943

- Roosevelt approved the British strategy for invading Sicily and then Italy.

Problems within Churchill and Roosevelt's relationship?

• Roosevelt disliked Britain’s backing of De Gaulle, causing political tension.

• The US built up forces in Britain and pressured for a fixed date (May 1944) for the invasion of Northern France, clashing with British strategic caution.

• Roosevelt increasingly prioritized negotiating with Stalin, sidelining Churchill’s concerns about Soviet intentions.

• Lend-Lease aid came with strict US conditions; Britain had to use gold reserves as collateral, and early military aid (50 destroyers) was outdated.

• The US only entered the war after Hitler declared war on America, showing initial US reluctance.

• Roosevelt wanted to focus more on defeating Japan, was unhappy with delays in the Western front, and rejected opening a Balkan front, diverging from Churchill’s plans.

• Despite their alliance, Roosevelt never visited Britain during the war, indicating personal and diplomatic distance.

In the beginning of January 1942, how many troops came to Britain?

Over 1 million US troops came to Britain before being shipped to North Africa and Italy.

goodness with churchill and Roosevelts relationship

- The USA did provide more direct help through its navy patrolling a neutral zone in the Atlantic to protect merchant shipping from German attacks.

- When Churchill met Roosevelt at Placentia Bay in August 1941 and agreed common principles in the Atlantic Charter, he established apparently warm relations with him.

during war:

- successful in getting the USA to adopt a 'Europe First' policy of defeating Germany before Japan and to accept his Mediterranean Strategy.

- The USA contributed enormously to DDay 1944. Churchill and Roosevelt corresponded frequently, and met together to discuss the war and the post-war settlement.

Meeting between Roosevelt and Churchill in Quebec (3)

- 1943

- The USA favoured an attack on Southern France which Churchill did not

- Churchill favoured an attack on the Balkans

Why had relations changed when Roosevelt and Churchill met in Cairo and Tehran in November 1943 (6)

- Roosevelt refused to meet Churchill privately before the conference

- He met Chinese leader Jiang Jieshi without Churchill's knowledge

- He made it clear that he wanted British attacks in Burma at the expense of more attacks in the Mediterranean

- The USA had now abandoned 'Europe First' and were working towards a defeat in Japan

- At Tehran, Roosevelt clearly favoured Stalin over Churchill

- Churchill's plans of setting up a Balkan front were rejected.

- The USA would supply the supreme commander of the D-Day Allied invasion to France.

Meeting with Churchill and Roosevelt in Quebec (3)

- Churchill got no commitment for post-war financial assistance for Britain

- It was clear that America was not as concerned about post-war Soviet expansion as Britain

- The USA was not prepared to back an Anglo-American race to occupy Berlin before the Russian army

When was the meeting with Churchill and Roosevelt in Quebec

September 1944

Churchill and Roosevelt at Yalta

Roosevelt and Churchill agreed on the policy that there should be free elections and democracy in post-war Europe, but R was concerned that this would not apply to the British Empire.

When was Yalta?

February 1945

Relations between Churchill and Stalin (3)

- Churchill was a bitter and outspoken critic of the Russian revolution of 1917

- However, as soon as Hitler invaded the USSR in June 1941, Churchill put ideology aside to work with Stalin, but he never entirely trusted him.

- The resistance of Russia against Hitler in the winter of 1941-42, was one of the big turning points in the war, and meant Stalin was going to be one of the Big Three, Allied leaders.

What was Churchill concerned about by 1944? (3)

- Churchill became much more concerned about the consequences of Russian advances into Eastern Europe.

- This led to him agreeing spheres of influence with Stalin, in the 'Percentages Agreement'

- Stalin respected this, not offering to help the Greek communists when Britain sent troops to fight there.

- but in practice the USSR dominated Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria and Poland, so Churchill had to accept Russian domination of eastern Europe.

when did churchill go to Moscow and what happened

He went to Moscow in August 1942 but there were disagreements about opening up a second front.

What was Churchill concerned about by 1943?

Churchill was resentful when Roosevelt and Stalin appeared to be on closer terms than with him

When was the Percentages Agreement?

October 1944 (4th Moscow Conference)

Details of the Percentages Agreement (3)

- Romania: 90% to Russia, 10% to others

- Greece: 90% to Great Britain, 10% to Russia

- Yugoslavia: 50% to Russia, 50% to Britain

Limitations of Churchill and Stalin's relationship (3)

- Successes of the Red Army led to the domination of Eastern Europe by communist Russia

- At Yalta 1945, Churchill had to accept Stalin would gain territories in Eastern Poland

- Russians protested against the failure to open a second front but may have regarded this as more of a bargaining point than a grievance, especially after defeating Germany in Stalingrad in February 1943.

Why were relations between Churchill and Stalin less problematic? (3)

- British forces were not fighting alongside Russian forces in the same way as they were with the US.

- Russian troops did not flood into Britain in the same way as the Americans

- British forces were not under Russian command, though they were led by an overall US commander from 1944 to 1945.

How did Churchill react to France's surrender? (3)

- Churchill was devastated by the French surrender, and was willing to send further forces even after Dunkirk.

- He was willing to commit air resources to France against the advice of the RAF commanders

- He offered a union between Britain and France as a desperate attempt to keep them in the war.

What action did Churchill take to prevent the French fleet falling into Germany's hands? (4)

• Churchill ordered a Royal Navy attack on the French fleet at the Algerian port of Mers-el-Kébir in July 1940.

• The British issued an ultimatum to the French: join the British, scuttle the ships, or sail to a neutral port.

• When the French refused, the British opened fire, sinking several ships and killing over 1,000 French sailors.

• This action was taken to stop the powerful French fleet from being used by Nazi Germany, which could have threatened British naval supremacy.

How did the French react to Dunkirk?

Saw the British retreat from Dunkirk as a betrayal, and the symbol of continuing the French resistance was Colonel Charles de Gaulle.

Who was De Gaulle? (4)

- Saw himself as the spirit of free France

- Led forces known as the Free French

- Not a political leader or high ranking officer, but was the self-proclaimed champion of France and saw himself as the natural leader of post-war France.

- De Gaulle would not work closely with former Vichy leaders in North Africa which annoyed Roosevelt and embarrassed Churchill.

Relations between Churchill and De Gaulle:

Churchill respected De Gaulle, but found him difficult to deal with, as he was uncompromising and unco-operative with other French leaders (saw himself as the natural French leader). He was also disliked by the Americans.

How many conferences were attended by world leaders?

Churchill: 16

Roosevelt: 12

Stalin: 7

Shows churchill's determination and belief that Britain should be the forefront when making decisions

peak of de Gaulle and Churchill's relationships

• De Gaulle refused to cooperate with Giraud, the French leader favoured by the United States.

• He resented US cooperation with French authorities in Algeria and Tunisia who had been loyal to the Vichy regime, which collaborated with Nazi Germany.

• This rivalry between De Gaulle and Giraud created serious divisions among the Free French and Allied forces.

• The tension threatened Allied unity and was a major source of strain at the Casablanca Conference (January 1943), where decisions about the future leadership of Free France were debated.

What did Churchill's attendance show?

His energy and determination for Britain to be at the forefront of decision making.

Why was Churchill considered a 'junior partner' in the Grand Alliance?

The USA had much greater resources and the USSR had made such a significant contribution to the war effort.

Results of Yalta 1945 (3)

- Return of Soviet prisoners of war to Russia to face their punishment

- Stalin gaining more territory in Poland

- Churchill was not happy about this but had to accept the terms, so that Stalin would allow the USSR to enter into the war against Japan.

Churchill's opinions about post-war Europe (2)

- Good international relations were essential to create peace and stability in post-war Europe

- He wanted a worldwide association of nations to replace the League of Nations, including the USSR and USA

Churchill's main aims after the war (3)

- Continue the special relationship with USA

- Defence of the Empire

- Greater influence in the Mediterranean

churchill actions about post war Europe

• In 1946, at Zurich, Churchill spoke strongly in favor of greater European unity, promoting the idea of a “European family” and urging the creation of a “United States of Europe.”

• He saw closer European ties as compatible with Britain’s other international commitments, such as the United Nations and the British Commonwealth.

• Churchill had a long history of supporting European cooperation:

  • In the 1930s, he backed Aristide Briand’s plan for a European union.

  • In 1940, he proposed uniting Britain and France to resist Nazi Germany.

• He advocated for reducing trade barriers and boosting economic cooperation across Europe.

• Churchill supported the Council of Europe’s founding in 1949, which created a forum for European countries to work together peacefully.

• He was not an isolationist nor solely focused on empire—he frequently engaged with Europe and supported Britain’s involvement in both world wars to maintain the European balance of power.

ok so Churchill cared about Britain but...

he still cared about the empire and commonwealth

limitations of relying too much on Europe.

- Germany was divided and only gradually recovering from the effects of the destruction of war.

- Italy, too, was struggling economically.

- France and Britain had not been on good terms, Britain resented the French surrender in 1940 and France remembered the sinking of the French

fleet by Britain.

- Many French people had supported the Vichy regime and de Gaulle and his supporters had not been on good terms with Churchill.

what demonstrated churchill not committing toooo much to Europe?

• He did not support Britain joining early European organisations like the European Coal and Steel Community, which was the foundation of later European unity.

• In 1951, Churchill told his Cabinet that he did not want Britain to become part of a European Federation. Instead, he prioritized maintaining the British Empire and Commonwealth.

• Although he wasn’t outright opposed to Europe, he wasn’t the enthusiastic supporter (Europhile) that some later pro-Europe politicians claimed he was.

• For Churchill, European cooperation was mainly useful as a way to stop communism spreading and to boost trade and prosperity, not to create a full political union.

Why was Germany treated less harshly after the war?

Due to the worry about creating resentment that could lead to another war.

What were the changing circumstances of 1945-6? (2)

• It was uncertain whether the USA would stay engaged in European affairs after the war, causing instability in how the Allies planned for Europe’s future.

• Meanwhile, the Soviet Union solidified control over the territories it had occupied during the war. The earlier hope from Yalta that Stalin would allow free elections in Eastern Europe was quickly fading as Soviet influence tightened.

What did Churchill do in September 1946?

Churchill made a major speech in Zurich that added to his reputation as a major figure in the European movement.

Why was Churchill a supporter of the European movement? (3)

- He believed that Europe was central to the defence of the Empire

- There were three major non-communist groups: the Anglo-american, Commonwealth-Empire and Western Europe

- Greater unity in these groups would strengthen Britain's position and security.

Problems with the European movement (6)

• Membership involved obligations Britain found difficult to meet

• Some members resisted Britain’s potential domination

• High defence costs as a global power strained Britain’s economy

• Fear of Britain being drawn into US hostility toward Russia

• Churchill preferred a loose European association, not full union

• Europe was divided by the 'Iron Curtain' between East and West

When and what was the Iron Curtain speech? (3)

- March 1946

- Churchill delivered a speech in Fulton, Missouri, during a visit to America.

- The speech was called 'The Sinews of Peace' but was seen as initiating the Cold War.

Impact of the Iron Curtain speech (4)

- Churchill enabled the West to label Soviet dominated countries as 'the Iron Curtain countries'

- This created a real and permanent division between Eastern and Western Europe

- Seen as a very hostile speech to Stalin and increased international tension

- encouraged the view that the West needed to maintain armaments to defend itself and that negotiations with the USSR would achieve little because of the 'curtain' between Communist dictatorship and Western democracy.

- Influence the USA to begin a policy of containment of communism

Limitations of Iron Curtain speech (3)

- There was criticism of the speech being irresponsible, especially at a time when peace was favoured and people were grateful for the sacrifice of the USSR in the war.

- The speech itself did not bring about the war, as anti-communist rhetoric was increasing in the USA before.

- The speech is only quoted in part, but Churchill actually promoted understanding with the USSR.

Stalin's repose to iron curtain speech

shows that he thought that the West still did not understand the Soviet need for security, despite the massive losses that the USSR had endured in the war.

why did the iron curtain give the wrong impression?

- The speech did not reflect the true situation, as Berlin was run by a joint commission.

- Yugoslavia was not totally dominated by the USSR

- Czechoslovakia was not under total Communist control in 1946.

- There was no evidence that Stalin was planning further expansion.

- Though the Red Army was a powerful influence, the total domination of eastern Europe was not complete in 1946.

- There was, as Stalin said, no acknowledgement that the USSR might have had real defence concerns in its desire to put a barrier between itself and the West.

but why did the iron curtain lowkey give the right impression?

- Russian policy was intent on creating a bloc of satellite states and that it had little respect for democratic elections that might threaten this.

reactions to the speech USA

- President Truman was unsympathetic to both communism and the USSR. Advisers like Kennan were influential in seeing traditional Russian expansion as a threat to stability in Europe.

- The USA was already concerned that the domination of eastern Europe would threaten America's economic interests by creating a closed economic zone before the speech was given.

reactions to the speech USSR

- In the USSR and for many on the political left across Europe, the speech produced a very hostile reaction.

CHURCHILL HAD NEVER BEEN...

Had never been a "little englander", always involved in international diplomacy and affairs, valued the imperial role of Britain's empire and the commonwealth