Psychology Key Terms: Foundations, Research, Memory, and Behavior

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Empirical Approach

knowledge from observation and experimentation

Critical Thinking

curiosity, skepticism, humility; evaluates evidence

Structuralism

Wundt/Titchener; studied elements of the mind's structure

Functionalism

William James; studied how mental/behavioral processes function to adapt

Wilhelm Wundt

first psych lab (1879), "atoms of the mind," structuralist

William James

functionalism, wrote Principles of Psychology

Mary Whiton Calkins

first woman APA president; memory research

Francis Sumner

first African American PhD in psych; racial bias studies

John B. Watson

behaviorism, "Little Albert" study (fear conditioning)

B.F. Skinner

behaviorism, operant conditioning (lever-press animals)

Sigmund Freud

psychoanalysis; unconscious drives, childhood experiences

Jean Piaget

developmental psychology, child cognitive stages

Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychology; growth, love, acceptance

Positive Psychology

modern humanistic focus on well-being and strengths

Cognitive Revolution

1960s return to studying mental processes

Biopsychosocial Approach

integrated view: biological, psychological, social-cultural

Hindsight Bias

believing 'I knew it all along' after outcomes are known

Overconfidence

tendency to think we know more than we do

Perceiving Order in Random Events

seeing patterns in randomness

Theory

explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors

Hypothesis

testable prediction from a theory

Operational Definition

carefully worded definition of research variables

Replication

repeating a study to confirm results

Case Study

in-depth analysis of one person/group

Naturalistic Observation

observing in natural environments

Survey

self-reported attitudes/behaviors of a group

Population

all those in a group being studied

Random Sample

fairly represents a population by chance selection

Correlation

measure of how two variables vary together

Correlation Coefficient (r)

number indicating strength/direction of relationship

Experiment

manipulates variables to establish cause-effect

Independent Variable (IV)

manipulated factor

Dependent Variable (DV)

measured outcome

Random Assignment

assigning by chance to control confounds

Experimental Group

receives treatment

Control Group

no treatment or baseline condition

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

protects human participants

IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee)

protects animal subjects

Memory

persistence of learning over time via encoding, storage, retrieval

Sensory Memory

brief recording of sensory info

Iconic Memory

visual sensory memory

Echoic Memory

auditory sensory memory

Short-Term Memory (STM)

active, limited capacity memory

Working Memory

active processing of incoming info + long-term retrieval

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

relatively permanent, limitless store

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

facts/experiences we can consciously declare

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

skills/conditioning without conscious recall

Effortful Processing

encoding requiring attention/conscious effort

Automatic Processing

unconscious encoding of info (space, time, frequency)

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units

Mnemonics

memory aids, often vivid imagery

Spacing Effect

distributed practice → better retention

Testing Effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, not just rereading

Elaborative Rehearsal

linking new info to existing knowledge

Neural Plasticity

brain's ability to change and adapt with experience

Neuron

nerve cell; basic building block

Sensory Neurons

carry incoming info from receptors to CNS

Motor Neurons

carry outgoing info from CNS to muscles/glands

Interneurons

communicate within CNS, between sensory and motor

Grey Matter

neuronal cell bodies, processing info

White Matter

myelinated axons, communication between regions

Action Potential

neural impulse; brief electrical charge down axon

Resting Potential

neuron's stable, negative charge at rest

Threshold

level needed to trigger an action potential

All-or-None Response

neuron fires fully or not at all

Myelin Sheath

fatty layer that insulates axons; speeds conduction

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in myelin where impulses jump (saltatory conduction)

Synapse

junction between neurons

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers across synapse

Brainstem

oldest brain part, automatic survival functions

Medulla

controls heartbeat, breathing

Pons

coordinates movement, controls sleep

Reticular Formation

controls arousal

Thalamus

sensory relay to cortex

Cerebellum

'little brain,' balance, coordination, nonverbal memory

Limbic System

regulates emotions/drives

Amygdala

emotions, especially fear/aggression

Hypothalamus

directs maintenance, controls pituitary, reward

Hippocampus

explicit memory processing

Cerebral Cortex

outer brain layer, higher thinking

Frontal Lobe

planning, judgment, movement (motor cortex)

Parietal Lobe

sensory input, spatial awareness (somatosensory cortex)

Occipital Lobe

visual processing

Temporal Lobe

auditory processing

Corpus Callosum

connects hemispheres

EEG

electrical activity

MEG

magnetic fields from neural activity

PET

radioactive glucose for brain activity

MRI

anatomy

fMRI

activity + anatomy

Logical Fallacies

errors in reasoning that weaken arguments

Disinformation Tactics

intentional spread of false information

Pseudoscience

claims appearing scientific but lacking evidence