Module 5–8: The Scientific Method, Major Research Designs, Ethics, and Developments of Methodology (Sociology)

A comprehensive set of practice flashcards covering the scientific method, research designs, sampling, data analysis, ethics, and contemporary methodological developments from the lecture notes.

What is the scientific method?

A systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem.

What are the five basic steps of the scientific method?

Defining the problem; Reviewing the literature; Formulating the hypothesis; Selecting the research design and then collecting and analyzing data; Developing the conclusion.

What is an operational definition?

An explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept (e.g., education defined as years of schooling; earnings defined as income in the past year).

What is the purpose of reviewing the literature?

To refine the problem under study, clarify possible techniques for data collection, and eliminate or reduce avoidable mistakes.

What is a hypothesis?

A speculative statement about the relationship between two or more variables.

What is a variable?

A measurable trait or characteristic that can change under different conditions.

What is an independent variable?

The variable hypothesized to cause or influence another.

What is a dependent variable?

The variable whose action depends on the influence of the independent variable.

What is causal logic?

The relationship where a condition or variable leads to a particular consequence.

What is correlation?

A relationship in which changes in one variable coincide with changes in another; does not necessarily indicate causation. Sociologist seek the casual link between variables

What is a sample?

A selection from a larger population that is statistically representative of that population.

What is a random sample?

Every member of the population has the same chance of being selected.

What are snowball or convenience samples?

Participants are recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet.

What is validity?

The degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon being studied.

Scientific method is - and -

Scientific method must be valid and reliable

What is reliability?

The extent to which a measure produces consistent results.

What is a control variable?

A factor held constant in order to test the relative impact of the independent variable.

What is the conclusion in a research study?

An end and a beginning; additional research questions may be generated from the conclusions; data may not always support the original hypothesis.

What is a survey?

A study, generally an interview or questionnaire, that provides sociologists with information about how people think and act. (Quantitative research )

What is an interview?

Face-to-face, phone, or online questioning.

What is a questionnaire?

A printed or written form to obtain information from a respondent.

Why must survey questions be worded carefully?

To avoid biases and misinterpretation; surveys must reflect changes in society (e.g., inclusion of same-sex partners in Census questions).

What is cross-tabulation?

A table that shows the relationship between two or more variables.

What is quantitative research?

Research that collects and reports data primarily in numerical form.

What is qualitative research?

Research that relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings, often focusing on small groups or communities.

What is ethnography?

The study of an entire social setting through extended systematic fieldwork, including observation and interviews.

What is observation in ethnography?

Direct participation in closely watching a group or organization—the basic technique of ethnography.

Visual sociology

The use of photography, film, and video to studysociety

Applied sociology

The use of the of sociology to yield practicalapplcations for human behavior and organizations

What is participant observation?

A method in which a sociologist joins a group for a period to understand how it operates.

Experiment

An artificially created situation that allows a researcher to manipulate variables

Experimental group

The group of subjects exposed to an independent variable

Control group

The group not exposed to the independent variable

What is the Hawthorne effect?

The unintended influence that observers of experiments can have on their subjects.

What is secondary analysis?

A set of techniques that use previously collected and publicly accessible information and data; nonreactive.

What is content analysis?

The systematic coding and objective recording of data from documents, media, and other sources.

What are the major research designs?

Survey (questionnaires, interviews); Ethnography (observation); Experiment (deliberate manipulation); Existing sources/secondary analysis (census or health data).

What is a code of ethics in sociology?

Standards of acceptable behavior; key points include objectivity, rights and dignity, confidentiality, informed consent, acknowledging collaboration, and disclosure of funding.

What ethical difficulties arise in sociological research?

Confidentiality concerns, handling illegal activities, and government inquiries among others.

What is confidentiality?

Keeping information secret; illustrated by the Rik Scarce case and related confidentiality protections.

What is conflict of interest in research?

Accepting funds from organizations that may benefit from results, which can call into question objectivity.

What is value neutrality?

Weber’s idea that researchers should be objective and accept findings even if they counter personal beliefs; biases must be overcome.

What is feminist methodology?

A perspective that emphasizes work–family integration, victimization, global research, collaboration with subjects, social change, and policy influence.

What is queer theory in methodology?

Questions whether researchers include gays/lesbians in studies and whether generalizations apply to all; promotes veiled reporting to reduce bias and harm.

What is the data-rich future in sociology?

Massive increases in data enable new research; big data can reveal non-causal relationships and complex effects.

What is NHSLS?

National Health and Social Life Survey; a private-funded effort to understand adult sexual practices in the U.S. due to federal funding restrictions in 1991.

What are mean, median, and mode?

Mean is the average; median is the midpoint; mode is the most common value.

Why are tables and graphs used in reporting data?

They display data and help researchers develop conclusions; cross-tabulations show relationships; graphs aid public understanding.