relations w generals and impact on strategic decision in the Medit.

Churchill’s experience

Military Experience:

• Served as a young man in:

  • Sudan

  • North West Frontier of India

  • Cuba (as an observer)

  • South Africa (as a war correspondent)

• Little experience in command, planning, or high-level strategy.

• No naval experience, despite holding naval positions.

Churchills experience of failures

• Failures:

  • Gallipoli Campaign (1915):

    • Churchill, as First Lord of the Admiralty, pushed the idea of invading Turkey.

    • Led to heavy losses (mainly ANZAC troops).

    • Failed to get past the beaches; only the evacuation succeeded.

    • Resulted in his resignation.

  • Western Front:

    • Briefly served as a colonel.

    • Saw little action, soon left to return to politics.

  • Norway Campaign (1939–40):

    • As head of the navy again, supported another failed campaign.

Churchill’s perspective/view

• Influenced by First World War experiences:

  • Blamed politicians for allowing generals like Haig to pursue high-casualty strategies without proper oversight.

• Frustrated with military caution during the 1930s:

  • Commanders advised against action due to fear of a three-front war (Germany, Italy, Japan).

• Believed in more assertive and bold actions.

• Felt generals were overly cautious and needed strong direction from political leaders.

Initial actions as PM

• Criticised military leaders and issued unrealistic orders.

• During German breakthrough at Sedan:

  • Lord Gort ignored Churchill’s orders to preserve British forces, a move that enabled Britain to continue the war.

• Ordered the defence of Calais to the last, which:

  • Had no military value.

  • Led to needless loss of men.

• Pushed to send another British force to France even as France was collapsing:

  • Only stopped by Sir John Dill’s firm opposition.

  • Dill was removed by Churchill soon after.

Relations w/ Brooke

Alan Brooke (Chief of the Imperial General Staff)

Professional but strained – worked effectively together but often clashed.

Brooke found Churchill impulsive and unrealistic – frequently had to challenge his decisions.

Private frustration – Brooke’s diaries reveal irritation and emotional exhaustion.

Acted as a strategic check – reined in Churchill’s wilder ideas

Supported key strategies – such as the Mediterranean focus, when grounded in realism.

Respected Churchill’s leadership – admired his determination despite personal tensions.

Balanced partnership – Churchill’s boldness + Brooke’s caution = stronger strategy.

Relations w/ Wavell

Initial high-level appointment – made Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East by Churchill.

Churchill interfered in planning – issued unrealistic orders from London, often without understanding on-the-ground conditions.

Undermined by poor support – Wavell had to manage underresourced campaigns, especially in North Africa and Greece.

Blamed for failures – Churchill held Wavell responsible for retreats in Greece and Crete, despite pulling troops from him.

Personality clash – Churchill disliked Wavell personally and found his cautious leadership style frustrating.

Removed in 1941 – Churchill dismissed Wavell and replaced him with Auchinleck after continued dissatisfaction.

Relations w/ Auchinleck

Took over from Wavell – appointed Commander-in-Chief Middle East in 1941 after Wavell's dismissal.

Focused on preparation – delayed battles in North Africa (e.g. post-First El Alamein) to ensure full readiness, which clashed with Churchill’s urgency.🔹 Frustrated Churchill – Churchill repeatedly grew irritated at Auchinleck’s cautious approach and reluctance to launch immediate offensives.

Accused of lacking aggression – Churchill believed Auchinleck lacked the "offensive spirit" necessary to defeat Axis forces quickly.

Dismissed in 1942 – replaced by General Montgomery just before the decisive Second Battle of El Alamein.

Relations w/ Montgomery - monty

• Appointed in 1942 after Churchill dismissed Auchinleck — Churchill saw Monty as a strong, energetic leader.

• Praised for El Alamein – Churchill gave Monty full credit for victory, despite much of the groundwork being laid by Auchinleck.

• Churchill’s favourite – admired Monty’s confidence, optimism, and clear planning, even overlooking his flaws.

• Overlooked mistakes – Churchill ignored Monty’s later slow and overly cautious campaigns in Italy and Normandy.

• Symbol of leadership – Churchill liked generals who boosted morale and public image, which Monty did effectively.

War in 1943-1944 : North Africa

• The Allies completed the campaign by defeating Axis forces in Tunisia, securing North Africa.

• Churchill lost confidence in some commanders but pushed for Mediterranean control to protect imperial routes and prepare for further operations.

• Despite success, the North African campaign was seen as a secondary front, with the main German forces engaged on the Eastern Front against the Soviets.

Importance of N Africa : What was the importance of the Mediterranean to Britain?

• It was a vital trade and empire route, especially as a connection to India and Asia.

• The Suez Canal was the main link between Britain and its Asian colonies.

• It was also strategically important for the defence of Middle Eastern oil supplies.

• Britain had a long-standing military and political interest in maintaining control over the region.

Importance of N Africa : What was the Suez Canal?

• A crucial waterway connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.

• It allowed direct sea access to India and Britain’s Asian colonies without going around Africa.

• It was essential for defending and supplying the British Empire.

Importance of N Africa : Which two major European nations did Britain see as a threat in the Mediterranean?

• Italy – Joined the war in 1940, had colonies in Libya, a strong navy, and posed a direct threat to Egypt.

• Spain – Though neutral, Franco’s regime could potentially allow Germany access to Gibraltar, threatening British naval control.

Importance of N Africa : What nations did Britain have control or influence over in the region?

• Gibraltar – Controlled the entrance to the Mediterranean.

• Egypt – Under unofficial British control.

• Suez Canal – Controlled by Britain.

• Palestine, Iraq, Transjordan – Dominated by British influence.

• Somalia – A British colony.

Importance of N Africa : What dominated British military thinking in 1940

• Defending the British Empire, especially the route to India through the Suez Canal.

• Protecting the Mediterranean corridor and its strategic points from Axis threats.

Importance of N Africa : What did Churchill believe should happen?

He believed in a Mediterranean strategy, seeing it as a way to:

• Protect the empire

• Possibly open up a Balkan front by involving Greece, Turkey, and Yugoslavia

• Repeat his earlier vision of attacking the "soft underbelly of Europe" (from the failed Gallipoli campaign in 1915).

Importance of N Africa : Why would you criticise this line of thinking?

• Overestimated the strategic value of the Mediterranean once Egypt was safe.

• Repeated earlier mistakes (e.g. Balkan and Gallipoli campaigns) despite their previous failures.

• Distracted Allied forces from launching an effective and earlier attack on Germany itself.

• The idea that the Balkans were a “soft underbelly” proved wrong again, as British forces were defeated in Greece.

Importance of N Africa : What impact did the US joining the war have?

• After December 1941, Britain had to coordinate strategy with the USA.

• The US military disagreed with Churchill’s Mediterranean focus.

• Caused tension in Allied planning, especially between Churchill and US generals like George Marshall.

Importance of N Africa : What did General George Marshall believe should’ve been done instead, and why?

• Marshall supported a direct invasion of Northern France rather than wasting time in the Mediterranean.

Three reasons why:

1. Atlantic Wall (German defences in France) hadn’t yet been built in 1942 – making an early invasion more feasible.

2. The survival of Russia depended on opening a Western Front to relieve pressure on the Eastern Front.

3. The main German forces were in Europe, so focusing on the Mediterranean was a strategic distraction.

War in 1943-1944 : Italy

• Following North Africa, the Allies invaded Sicily in July 1943, then mainland Italy.

• The Italian campaign became prolonged and costly, tying down 16 Allied divisions in difficult mountain warfare against well-entrenched Germans.

• The slow progress frustrated Churchill but was partly motivated by a desire to maintain British influence in the Mediterranean and eastern Europe (per the 1944 “percentages agreement” with Stalin).

• Italy’s fall did not decisively weaken Germany; the campaign diverted resources from the planned cross-Channel invasion of France.

• The difficult terrain and strong German resistance at battles like Anzio delayed Allied progress through Italy until 1944.

Churchill and the war in Italy : What was the situation with Italy in 1943?

By 1943, Italy was weakened by military defeats and no longer a major threat. The Allies controlled key Mediterranean territories, and although Germany had troops in Italy, the Allies had naval and air superiority. Sixteen Allied divisions were tied down in heavy fighting with German forces in Italy, without much strategic gain.

Churchill and the war in Italy : Why was there a delay to the D-Day invasion? (4 reasons)

• High expected casualties made leaders cautious; they hoped to weaken Germany first.

• Russia was wearing down German forces, reducing the urgency.

• Britain wanted to preserve dominance in the Mediterranean and extend influence in Southeast Europe.

• The Italian campaign was longer and harder than expected, e.g., failed Anzio landings.

War in 1943-1944 : France

• The D-Day invasion (Operation Overlord) was launched on 6 June 1944, much later than Churchill initially hoped, due to fears of heavy casualties and the need for careful preparation.

• Churchill and military leaders like Brooke preferred delaying a direct invasion until conditions improved, including Soviet pressure on Germany and the effects of Allied bombing.

• General Eisenhower was appointed Supreme Allied Commander, with Montgomery leading British forces during the Normandy campaign.

• The initial landing met lighter resistance than feared, but the advance inland, especially capturing Caen, was slow and costly.

• Churchill publicly supported Montgomery, often giving him credit beyond his military merits.

War in 1943-1944 : Operation Market Garden

• A bold Allied airborne operation to capture bridges in the Netherlands and outflank German defenses.

• Backed strongly by Montgomery but doubted by American commanders.

• The operation failed due to poor planning, underestimating German strength, and logistical problems.

• It drew comparisons to the earlier failed Gallipoli campaign and highlighted Churchill’s difficulty in curbing risky plans from favored generals.

War in 1943-1944 : 1940-1944 OVERALL

• Churchill’s leadership was marked by energy and political skill but also by strategic impatience and interference.

• The Mediterranean strategy secured vital imperial links but delayed the decisive defeat of Germany in Western Europe.

• Allied resources were stretched, with large troop commitments in Italy diverting attention from France.

• The Eastern Front remained the largest and bloodiest theater, with the Soviets bearing the brunt of fighting Germany.

• Churchill encouraged innovation (e.g., deception tactics before D-Day) and maintained British morale despite military frustrations.

What was the motivation behind the bombing of Germany?

• To destroy German morale by bringing terror to civilian populations, mirroring the German Blitz.

• To damage Germany’s war-making capacity by targeting industry and infrastructure.

What were the problems with the RAF Bomber Command's strategy?

• Lack of precision – 1942 reports showed bombing wasn’t effective enough to cripple German industry.

• Civilians were resilient – like during the Blitz, German morale was unlikely to break.

• Ethical concerns – targeting civilians raised moral objections from figures like Bishop Bell.

Bomber Arthur Harris – what did he deliberately do?

Harris deliberately targeted mass destruction of German cities, using incendiary bombs to cause firestorms, aiming to overwhelm cities like Hamburg, Berlin, and Dresden.

How many people died in bombing raids?

• Germany: Between 400,000 and 600,000 civilians.

• Britain: 60,595 civilians.

• Dresden raid alone: Around 40,000 dead.