Psychology 101 Final Exam Study Guide

Flashcards for Psychology 101 Final Exam Review

What are normative and informational social influence?

Normative influence involves conforming to be liked or accepted by others, while informational influence involves conforming because you believe others have accurate information.

What was Asch’s study of conformity, and what type of social influence did it demonstrate?

Asch's study involved participants judging the length of lines. It demonstrated normative social influence, as people conformed even when they knew the answer was wrong to fit in with the group.

What was Milgram’s study of obedience? What proportion of participants continued “shocking” the

Milgram's study examined obedience to authority. A significant proportion of participants continued administering shocks to the 'learner' even after they stopped responding.

What is social loafing?

Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

What is deindividuation?

Deindividuation is the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint that can occur in group situations, fostering arousal and anonymity.

What is group polarization?

Group polarization is the tendency for group discussions to strengthen the initial inclinations of the group members.

What is groupthink?

Groupthink is a way of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

What are prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination?

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group, stereotyping is a generalized belief about a group, and discrimination is a negative behavior toward a group or its members.

What are explicit and implicit prejudice?

Explicit prejudice refers to conscious and openly expressed negative attitudes, while implicit prejudice refers to unconscious and automatic negative attitudes.

What is the Implicit Association Test?

A measure of implicit attitudes and biases.

What is the just-world phenomenon? How does it explain prejudice?

The just-world phenomenon is the tendency to believe that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. It can lead to prejudice by blaming victims for their misfortunes.

What is realistic conflict theory? How does it explain prejudice?

Realistic conflict theory suggests that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources.

What was Sherif’s Robber’s Cave experiment?

Sherif's Robber's Cave experiment demonstrated how intergroup conflict can arise from competition over limited resources and how it can be reduced through cooperation.

How does social identity theory explain prejudice?

Social identity theory proposes that prejudice stems from the need to enhance self-esteem by favoring one's own group.

What is in-group bias?

In-group bias is the tendency to favor one's own group.

What are minimal groups? What was the minimal group experiment (Tajfel, 1971)?

Minimal groups are arbitrary groups. Tajfel's experiment showed that people exhibit in-group bias even when groups are formed on trivial criteria.

How does categorization explain stereotyping?

Categorization involves grouping people based on shared characteristics, which can lead to oversimplification and stereotyping.

How does the confirmation bias explain stereotyping?

Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms existing beliefs, strengthening stereotypes.

What is the contact hypothesis? Is it supported?

The contact hypothesis suggests that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice. It is generally supported under certain conditions.

What is cooperative interdependence?

Cooperative interdependence is a situation in which individuals or groups need each other to achieve a common goal.

How did Sherif reduce prejudice in the Robber’s Cave study?

Sherif reduced prejudice by creating cooperative tasks that required the groups to work together towards a common goal (introducing superordinate goals).

What is a jigsaw classroom?

A jigsaw classroom is a cooperative learning technique where students are divided into groups, each member responsible for teaching one part of the lesson to their group.

What is the drive theory of aggression?

The drive theory of aggression suggests that aggression is a result of built-up aggressive energy.

What is catharsis? Does it reduce aggression?

Catharsis is the release of pent-up emotions, such as aggression. Research suggests it does not effectively reduce aggression.

What is the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

The frustration-aggression hypothesis proposes that frustration leads to aggression.

How do similarity and proximity predict liking?

Similarity and proximity both predict liking. People tend to like those who are similar to them and who are physically close to them.

What is the mere exposure effect? How has this been demonstrated in studies?

The mere exposure effect is the phenomenon that repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to increased liking of the stimulus. Studies showing students pictures of faces demonstrate this effect.

What is the bystander effect? Why does this occur?

The bystander effect is the tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.

What is diffusion of responsibility?

Diffusion of responsibility is the belief that in a group situation, responsibility is spread amongst the group, decreasing the likelihood of any one individual taking action.

What is pluralistic ignorance?

Pluralistic ignorance is a situation where individuals in a group believe that their own thoughts or feelings are different from those of the group, even though everyone may share the same thoughts or feelings.

What is evaluation apprehension?

Evaluation apprehension is concern about how others are evaluating one's behavior.

What is the psychoanalytic perspective of personality? What 2 factors did Freud emphasize in the development of personality?

The psychoanalytic perspective emphasizes the role of unconscious processes and early childhood experiences in shaping personality. Freud emphasized sexual and aggressive urges.

What is the unconscious?

The unconscious is the part of the mind that is inaccessible to conscious awareness but influences behavior.

What are the id, ego, and superego?

The id is the primitive, instinctual part of the mind; the ego is the rational part of the mind; and the superego is the moral part of the mind.

What are Freud’s first 3 psychosexual stages?

Oral, anal, and phallic.

What are oral and anal fixations?

Oral fixation is a preoccupation with oral activities, while anal fixation is a preoccupation with issues of control and orderliness.

What is the Oedipus complex?

The Oedipus complex is a stage in psychosexual development in which a child develops sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the same-sex parent.

What are Freud’s defense mechanisms?

Repression, projection, rationalization, displacement, and denial.

What is psychological determinism? What are Freudian slips?

Psychological determinism is the belief that all thoughts, feelings, and behaviors have underlying psychological causes. Freudian slips are unintentional errors in speech that reveal unconscious thoughts or desires.

What are projective tests?

Projective tests are personality tests that present ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses that reflect unconscious thoughts and feelings.

What is the Rorschach?

The Rorschach is a projective test using inkblots.

What is the humanistic perspective of personality?

The humanistic perspective emphasizes the individual's inherent drive toward self-actualization and personal growth.

What are Rogers’s concepts of empathy and unconditional positive regard?

Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another, and unconditional positive regard is acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does.

What are the Big Five traits?

Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.

What is the DSM?

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a standard classification of mental disorders used by mental health professionals.

What is labeling theory? What was Rosenhan’s study?

Labeling theory suggests that assigning diagnostic labels to individuals can influence their behavior and how others perceive them. Rosenhan's study showed how diagnostic labels can bias perceptions of mental illness.

What are anxiety disorders?

Anxiety disorders are psychological disorders characterized by excessive worry, fear, or anxiety.

What is generalized anxiety disorder?

Generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by persistent and excessive worry about various things.

What is panic disorder? What are panic attacks?

Panic disorder is characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. Panic attacks are sudden episodes of intense fear or discomfort.

What are phobias?

Phobias are persistent and irrational fears of specific objects, activities, or situations.

What is social anxiety disorder?

Social anxiety disorder is characterized by excessive fear of social situations and scrutiny by others.

What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? What are obsessions and compulsions?

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by recurrent obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors).

What is major depressive disorder?

Major depressive disorder is characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and loss of interest or pleasure.

What is bipolar disorder?

Bipolar disorder is characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression.

What is mania?

Mania is a state of elevated mood, increased energy, and impulsive behavior.

What is schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior.

What does it mean to have psychotic symptoms?

Having psychotic symptoms means experiencing a loss of touch with reality, often involving delusions and hallucinations.

What are delusions and hallucinations?

Delusions are false beliefs, and hallucinations are false sensory experiences.

What is disorganized speech?

Disorganized speech is a pattern of speech that is difficult to understand or follow.

What is word salad?

Word salad is a form of disorganized speech in which words are jumbled together without meaning.

What are catatonic symptoms?

Catatonic symptoms involve disturbances in motor behavior, such as immobility or excessive activity.

What are positive and negative symptoms?

Positive symptoms are excesses or distortions of normal behavior, while negative symptoms are deficits in normal behavior.

What is dissociative identity disorder?

Dissociative identity disorder is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states.

What are personality disorders?

Personality disorders are enduring patterns of inner experience and behavior that deviate markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture.

What is borderline personality disorder?

Borderline personality disorder is characterized by instability in relationships, self-image, and affect, as well as impulsivity.

What is narcissistic personality disorder?

Narcissistic personality disorder is characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a need for admiration, and a lack of empathy.

What is psychoanalytic therapy?

Psychoanalytic therapy is a type of therapy that explores unconscious thoughts and feelings.

What is dream interpretation?

Dream interpretation is a technique used in psychoanalysis to uncover unconscious material by analyzing the content of dreams.

What is free association?

Free association is a technique used in psychoanalysis in which the patient says whatever comes to mind without censorship.

What is humanistic therapy? What are important qualities of Rogers’s person-centered therapy?

Humanistic therapy emphasizes self-exploration and personal growth. Important qualities of Rogers's person-centered therapy include empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard.

What is behavioral therapy?

Behavioral therapy is a type of therapy that focuses on changing maladaptive behaviors through learning principles.

What are classical conditioning and operant conditioning methods?

Classical conditioning methods involve associating stimuli to create a conditioned response, and operant conditioning methods involve using reinforcement and punishment to change behavior.

What is exposure therapy?

Exposure therapy is a type of behavioral therapy that involves gradually exposing individuals to feared stimuli.

What is flooding?

Flooding is a type of exposure therapy that involves exposing individuals to the maximum intensity of a feared stimulus.

What is systematic desensitization?

Systematic desensitization is a type of exposure therapy that involves gradually exposing individuals to feared stimuli while practicing relaxation techniques.

What is a token economy?

A token economy is a system in which desired behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges or goods.

What is cognitive therapy?

Cognitive therapy is a type of therapy that focuses on changing maladaptive thoughts and beliefs.

What is cognitive-behavioral therapy?

Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is a type of therapy that combines cognitive and behavioral techniques to change maladaptive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Is psychotherapy effective?

Yes, psychotherapy is generally effective for many mental disorders.

What drugs are used to treat schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder?

Antipsychotics are used to treat schizophrenia, anxiolytics are used to treat anxiety, antidepressants are used to treat depression, and mood stabilizers are used to treat bipolar disorder.

What is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)?

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a treatment for severe mental disorders that involves inducing a brief seizure by passing an electrical current through the brain.

What is the life change approach to measuring stress? Is life change associated with health?

The life change approach measures stress by assessing major life events. Life change is associated with health, but not perfectly.

What is the daily hassles approach to measuring stress? Are daily hassles associated with health?

The daily hassles approach measures stress by assessing minor irritations and annoyances. Daily hassles are associated with health.

What is perceived stress? Is it associated with health?

Perceived stress is the subjective experience of stress. It is associated with health.

What is Cannon’s fight-or-flight mechanism?

A physiological response to stress that prepares the body to either fight or flee.

What is Selye’s general adaptation syndrome? What are the 3 stages?

Selye's general adaptation syndrome is a model of the body's stress response. The three stages are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

What is the tend-and-befriend hypothesis?

The tend-and-befriend hypothesis suggests that under stress, people (especially women) are likely to protect their offspring and seek social support.

What are the indirect and direct effect models of stress and illness?

The indirect effect model suggests that stress affects health by influencing health behaviors, while the direct effect model suggests that stress affects health through physiological mechanisms.

What are Type A and Type B behavior patterns? What is the toxic component of Type A?

Type A behavior patterns are competitive, impatient, and hostile, while Type B behavior patterns are relaxed and easygoing. The toxic component of Type A is hostility.

What are problem-focused and emotion-focused coping?

Problem-focused coping involves addressing the source of stress, while emotion-focused coping involves managing the emotions associated with stress.

How is control related to health? What was Rodin and Langer’s (1976) “plant” study?

Control is positively related to health. Rodin and Langer's plant study demonstrated that increased control over one's environment can improve well-being in elderly individuals.

What is perceived control?

Perceived control is the belief that one has the ability to influence events and outcomes.

How is optimism related to health?

Optimism is positively related to health.

What are unrealistic optimism and defensive pessimism?

Unrealistic optimism is the belief that one is less likely to experience negative events, while defensive pessimism is the expectation of negative outcomes, used as a strategy to prepare for potential failure.

What is the relation between social support and health? What are the potential mechanisms explaining this relation?

Social support is positively related to health. Potential mechanisms include reduced stress, improved immune function, and increased healthy behaviors.

What is expressive writing? How is it related to health?

Expressive writing is writing about one's thoughts and feelings. It is associated with improved health.

How are exercise, mindfulness, religiosity, gratitude, and acts of kindness related to stress and health?

Exercise, mindfulness, religiosity, gratitude, and acts of kindness are all associated with reduced stress and improved health.