Infant Development

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Children as active constructors of knowledge

Cognitive development occurs through stages

Goal: achieve cognitive equilibrium

Schema

Mental framework for organizing information

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas

ex: calling all 4 legged animals “doggie”

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information

ex: learning distinct categories (dog, horse, zebra)

Cognitive Equilibrium

The driving force behind both processes

The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth–2 Years)

First Stage of Cognitive Development

Knowledge Through Senses and Motor Actions

Foundation for Later Cognitive Abilities

Six Substages of the Sensorimotor Period

1. 0-1 month - Reflexes

2. 1-4 months - Primary Circular Reactions

3. 4-8 months - Secondary Circular Reactions

4. 8-12 months - Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions

5. 12-18 months - Tertiary Circular Reactions

6. 18-24 months - Beginning of Representational Thought

Substage 1: Reflexes 0-1 month

Learning through innate reflexes

Sucking, grasping, reaching

Reflexes become more controlled

Substage 2: Primary Circular Reactions 1-4 months

Repetition of actions centered on the body

Behaviors discovered by chance

Increased voluntary control

Substage 3: Secondary Circular Reactions 4-8 months

Interaction with objects in the environment

Deliberate repetition of actions

Enjoyment of producing effects

Substage 4: Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions 8-12 months

Goal-directed behavior

Coordination of multiple actions

Early planning abilities

Substage 5: Tertiary Circular Reactions 12-18 months

Trial-and-error exploration

Active experimentation

Child as a “little scientist”

Substage 6: Beginning of Representational Thought 18-24 months

Emergence of mental representations

Symbolic thought and pretend play

Transition to preoperational stage

Stranger Anxiety

Fear of Unfamiliar People

Emerges Around the Same Time as Object Permanence

Linked to Schema Limitations

Critique of Piaget's Sensorimotor Theory

Underestimated Infants' Cognitive Abilities

Object Knowledge Appears Earlier Than Proposed

Methodological Limitations

Evidence for Earlier Object Knowledge

Shorter Delays Improve Performance

Object Permanence Evident by 3–6 Months

Looking-Time Measures

Forming Attachments

Attachment: close emotional bond with caregiver

Source of security, confidence, and exploration

Foundation for later relationships and self-concept

Freud's Psychoanalytic View of Attachment

Infants Motivated by Oral Pleasure

Attachment Linked to Feeding

Mother as Primary Attachment Figure

Harlow's Research on Attachment

Infant Monkeys Raised With Surrogate Mothers

Wire Mother Provided Food

Cloth Mother Provided Comfort

Contact Comfort and Secure Base

Preference for Cloth Mother

Contact Comfort as Foundation of Attachment

Secure Base Supports Exploration

Bowlby's Attachment Theory

Attachment as an Affectional Bond

Evolutionary Perspective

Attachment Lasts Across the Lifespan

Secure Base and Caregiver Responsiveness

Caregiver Responsiveness Is Critical

Mutually Enjoyable Interactions

Child Explores While Feeling Safe

Attachment and Evolution

Distress During Separation

Universal Mammalian Behaviors

Survival Advantage

Problems Establishing Trust

Inconsistent or Unavailable Caregiving

Infant or Caregiver Risk Factors

Long-Term Implications

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Laboratory assessment of attachment

Mild stress through separation

Focus on reunion behavior

(8 episodes in notes)

Secure Attachment

Uses caregiver as secure base

Distressed by separation

Comforted upon reunion

Insecure-Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment

Clingy and wary behavior

Extreme distress during separation

Difficulty being soothed

Insecure-Avoidant Attachment

Avoids caregiver

Limited emotional expression

Learned self-reliance

Disorganized Attachment

Inconsistent or fearful behavior

Confusion during reunion

Often linked to abuse or trauma

Prevalence and Cultural Differences

Secure Attachment Most Common

Cultural Variations in Insecurity Types

Context Matters

Caregiver Consistency

Stability Supports Attachment

Risks of High Caregiver Turnover

Recovery Is Possible

Social Deprivation and Attachment Disorders

Effects of Severe Neglect

Failure to Thrive

Emotional and Developmental Delays

Reactive Attachment Disorder

Result of Extreme Neglect

Inhibited, Withdrawn Behavior

Relatively Rare

Resiliency in Attachment

Ability to Adapt Despite Adversity

Temperament and Support Matter

Attachment as Gene–Environment Interplay

synaptic pruning

neural connections are reduced,

thereby making those that are used much stronger.

myelin

a coating of fatty tissues around the

axon of the neuron (Carlson, 2014). Myelin helps insulate the nerve cell and speed the rate of transmission of impulses from one

cell to another.

frontal lobe

(behind the forehead), which is responsible primarily for thinking, planning,

memory, and judgment.

parietal lobe

which extends from the middle to the back of the skull

and which is responsible primarily for processing information about touch.

occipital lobe

at the very back of the

skull, which processes visual information.

temporal lobe

which is

responsible for hearing and language

Lateralization

is the process in which different functions become localized primarily on one side of the brain.

neuroplasticity

the brain's ability to change, both physically and chemically; to enhance its adaptability to

environmental change ; and to compensate for injury.

Sudden Unexpected Infant Deaths (SUID)

Each year in the United States, there are about 3,500 Sudden Unexpected Infant

Deaths (SUID). These deaths occur among infants less than one year old and have no immediately obvious cause (CDC, 2019).

The three commonly reported types of SUID are

• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): SIDS is identified when the death of a healthy infant occurs suddenly and unexpectedly, and medical and forensic investigation findings (including an autopsy) are inconclusive.

• Unknown Cause: The sudden death of an infant less than one year of age that cannot be explained because a thorough investigation was not conducted, and cause of death could not be determined.

• Accidental Suffocation and Strangulation in Bed: Reasons for accidental suffocation include: Suffocation by soft bedding, another person rolling on top of or against the infant while sleeping, an infant being wedged between two objects such as a mattress and wall, and strangulation such as when an infant's head and neck become caught between crib railings.

Colostrum

the first breast milk produced during pregnancy and just after

birth, has been described as "liquid gold"

infantile amnesia

the inability to recall memories from the first few

years of life.