(f) State control of mass media and propaganda

How did Lenin establish control over the press after 1917?

Lenin quickly eliminated press freedom, viewing newspapers as bourgeois tools. A November 1917 decree banned non-socialist papers and by the early 1920s only Bolshevik newspapers remained. The printing press was nationalised, journalists became state employees and Party members, and all publications required approval from Glavlit, ensuring the press spoke with one official voice.

What role did newspapers play in the Soviet system?

Newspapers were key instruments of propaganda, agitation and organisation.

• Pravda (Communist Party paper)

• Izvestiya (government paper) promoted socialism and highlighted state achievements, guided by the principle of partinost (party-mindedness)

• They were cheap, widely available, displayed in public places and workplaces, and faced no competition from independent papers. As mass newspapers, their circulation was enormous (e.g. Pravda over 10 million by the 1980s), ensuring the Party message reached the whole population.

What themes dominated Soviet newspapers?

Newspapers focused heavily on the achievements of socialism, especially production figures showing targets met or exceeded, particularly during Stalin’s industrialisation drive of the 1930s. They celebrated technological triumphs over nature, such as Arctic expeditions and heroic aviators flying over the North Pole, symbolising bravery, progress and Soviet power.

What was censored?

Negative news was censored or delayed: plane crashes, natural disasters and failures were largely prohibited from reporting.

How did the Soviet government suppress information about major disasters?

The government routinely hid or delayed reporting of disasters:

• A major fire near Moscow in July 1972 was only explained a month later, after it was extinguished

• The 1957 Kyshtym nuclear disaster was completely ignored by the press, despite an explosion killing at least 200 people and exposing over 270,000 to radiation

• Public suspicion grew when more than 30 settlements disappeared from Soviet maps between 1958 and 1991

• Without acknowledging the disaster, the government took two years to evacuate unsafe areas

To what extent was criticism allowed in Soviet newspapers?

Limited criticism was permitted, especially in local newspapers. Readers could criticise minor officials and raise issues such as poor housing, which became common in the 1970s. However, criticism of senior Party leaders or the Communist system itself was strictly forbidden.

What role did magazines and journals play in Soviet media?

The USSR produced a wide range of magazines aimed at specific groups (e.g. farmers, soldiers, teachers, children and sports fans). Acceptable hobbies and interests were encouraged, but topics such as sex, crime, pornography and religion were banned. Sports coverage, often neglected in newspapers, was provided by magazines like Sovetskii Sport, which was popular and respected for accuracy, though it still included political praise of the regime.

Why was radio an effective propaganda tool for the Bolsheviks?

Radio was a new technology with no tradition of independence, making it easy to control. The Bolsheviks developed voice radio by 1921 and used it mainly for news and propaganda, such as the Spoken Newspaper. Because radios were expensive, loudspeakers were installed in public places and workplaces, encouraging group listening and ensuring a collective, controlled response. By 1922, Moscow had a well-developed broadcasting system.

Why was radio particularly valuable to the Soviet government?

Radio allowed the government to reach the 65% of the population who were illiterate. It was state-controlled and broadcast official messages mixed with music to make propaganda more appealing. Radio’s speed was crucial during crises, especially in 1941 when Stalin’s live broadcast from Red Square reassured the population as German forces approached Moscow.

How did the Soviet government control radio and limit foreign influence?

Most apartments were wired to receive only government radio stations. Until 1964 there was just one Soviet station; under Brezhnev this expanded to three, including Radio Maiak, which played limited foreign music. Access to foreign broadcasts was restricted through radio jamming, cheap radios with limited range, and threats of arrest for listening to stations like the BBC or Voice of America. Although not fully effective, these measures reduced access to alternative information and limited public debate.

How was television used by the Soviet government from the 1950s?

Television became a major propaganda tool. TV ownership rose from 10,000 sets in 1950 to nearly 3 million by 1958. State channels broadcast news, documentaries praising socialism, cultural programmes (ballet, classical arts), children’s shows and feature films. Life in the USSR was portrayed as happy and successful, while capitalism was shown as violent and corrupt. Early content was dull and unpopular, but by 1985 two channels existed with more light entertainment. Regional programming in local languages helped reduce resentment among national minorities.

Television: 60s

• Mass production of televisions in the 1960s brought their price within the range of most of the population, even if availability failed to keep pace with demand

Television: 60s

Mass production of televisions in the 1960s brought their price within the range of most of the population, even if availability failed to keep pace with demand

Television: 80s

By the early 1980s, most of the rural population had access to television

Results: 1953 – Beria affair

• Soviet citizens noticed changes in publications as clues to political events.

• Example: Subscribers to the Soviet Encyclopedia were instructed to replace pages about Beria with harmless content about the Bering Sea.

• This was the first public sign that Beria had been arrested.

Results: 980s – Technology and information

• Video recorders began being mass-produced, allowing easier sharing of information.

• Computers and other advanced technologies started emerging, creating a new challenge for the government to control access to information.

Overall result

Over time, the Soviet public learned to read between the lines:

• Politburo members’ health issues, absence from the press, or coverage indicated political rises or falls.

• Media space was biased toward favoured Party members.