AP Psych (EXAM 5/12)

Biological perspective

behavior is the result of the physical brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and individual differences in genes

Behavioral perspective

Individuals learn behaviors through punishment, reinforcement, and observation

Cognitive perspective

behaviors stem from thoughts and memories (prior experiences)

Evolutionary perspective

behaviors and mental processes exist in humans today because they were naturally selected because they provided early humans with a reproductive or survival advantage

Humanistic perspective

in order to reach the full potential of your behavior, individuals need the support and acceptance of others (unconditional positive regard)

Psychodynamic perspective

behaviors are linked to unresolved, unconscious childhood conflicts from the past buried deep in the unconscious

Socio-cultural perspective

behaviors and mental processes are the result of the influence of one's culture, society, nationality, gender, religion, etc. Behavior is often influenced by the norms of the various groups that an individual is a part of within society.

Confirmation bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's beliefs and ignores contradictory information

Hindsight bias

"I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon; the tendency for people to believe, after learning the outcome, that they would have foreseen or predicted it all along

Overconfidence

a bias where individuals are more confident than they are correct

Experiment

a research method used to determine cause-and-effect relationship by manipulating one or more variables to measure their effect on dependent variables

Independent variable

the factor in an experiment that is manipulated (cause)

dependent variable

the factor being measured and observed (effect)

Random assignment

participants have an equal chance of being placed in the experimental or control group in an experiment

Case study

a descriptive study; in-depth, detailed investigation of a single individual, small group, or rare phenomenon - no manipulation

Correlation

helps us predict how two variables relate to each other

meta-analysis

combines and analyzes data from multiple independent studies on a specific topic to calculate an overall effect size and identify trends

Naturalistic observation

descriptive study; behavior is observed in its natural setting without any manipulation or intervention by the researcher

hypothesis

an educated guess as a basis for research

Falsifiability

the principle that a hypothesis must be able to be proven false in order to be considered scientifically valid.

Operational definition

how to measure a variable or define a term in a study

Replication

the process of repeating a study to determine if findings are consistent

Confounding variable

an outside factor that influences the relationship between the independent and dependent variable

Mean

average

Median

the middle number

Mode

most frequently occurring number

Range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset

Normal curve

the mean, median, and mode are the same number

Positive skew

mode < median < mean, higher data values pull the tail to the right

Negative skew

mean < median < mode, lower data values pulls the tail to the left

Bimodal distribution

two different values appear most frequently (modes) in the data set

Standard deviation

measures how much individual scores vary around the mean

Percentile rank

indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a particular score

Regression toward the mean

the statistical tendency for extreme initial scores (very high or low) to move closer to the average (mean) upon subsequent measurements

Sample

a smaller group of individuals selected from a larger population

Population

the entire group that the researchers are studying

Random sampling

every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected in a study

Convenience sampling

non-random sampling technique where researchers select participants based on their immediate availability, accessibility, and willingness to participate, such as friends or classmates.

Sampling bias

occurs when certain members of a population have a higher or lower likelihood of being selected than others

Generalizability

the extent to which research findings from a specific, often limited sample can be applied to the broader population

Experimental group

receive the experimental treatment or independent variable

Control group

do not receive the experimental treatment or independent variable

Placebo

an inactive substance that has no therapeutic effect

Placebo effect

where a person experiences an improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that is inert

Single-blind procedure

participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control groups

Double-blind procedure

neither the participants nor the researchers are aware who is in the experimental or control groups

Experimenter bias

unconscious or unintentional tendency of researchers to influence the outcome of a study

Social desirability bias

tendency for respondents to answer questions in a way that portrays them in a favorable light, aligning with social norms rather than true feelings

Qualitative measures

non-numerical data

Quantitative measures

numerical data

Likert scale

scales of "agree" or "strongly disagree"

Scatterplot

graph showing the strength, direction and relationship of two variables

Correlation coefficient (r-value)

determines the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables

Statistical significance (p-value)

whether any differences observed between groups between studies are "real" or if they're due to just chance

Directionality problem

a limitation of correlational research where it is unclear which variable causes the other

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

established to protect the rights and welfare of human and animal research subjects

Informed consent/assent

letting participants know about a study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and right to withdraw; voluntary inclusion

Confidentiality

keeping participant's identity anonymous

Confederate

an actor working with the researcher who poses as a participant

Deception

where they intentionally mislead or withhold information from participants regarding the true purpose, nature, or procedures of a study

Debriefing

inform participants about the study's true purpose, methods and any deception used

nature vs. nurture

the debate between the impact of environment and genetics

Central nervous system

the brain and the spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

part of the nervous system that consists of nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord

Autonomic nervous system

regulates involuntary bodily functions

Parasympathetic nervous system

relaxes the body

Sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body

Somatic nervous system

enables voluntary control over muscles

Neurons

basic building blocks of the brain

Glial cells

provide support, protection, and nourishment to neurons

Reflex arc

an automatic, involuntary, and rapid responses through the spinal cord

Sensory neurons

(afferent) carry messages from the body to the brain

Motor neurons

(efferent) carry messages from the brain to the body

Interneurons

carry messages between the sensory and motor neurons (in the brain)

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers released in the synapse to keep a message/impulse going

Dopamine

motor movement and alertness

Serotonin

mood, hunger, sleep and arousal control

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal

Glutamate

excitatory, involved in memory

GABA

inhibitory, calms you down

Endorphins

released when your body feels pain or stress

Substance P

tells you when there is pain

Acetylcholine

motor movement, memory and learning

Hormones

chemical messengers released by glands in the endocrine system

Adrenaline

activates fight or flight response in sympathetic NS

Leptin

makes you feel full after eating

Ghrelin

makes you feel hungry

Retina

light-sensitive, multilayered tissue at the back of the eye that converts light waves into neural impulses (transduction!) using photoreceptors

Blind spot

where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "gap" in your vision - our brain fills that space

Optic nerve

transmits visual information from to the thalamus and occipital lobe

Accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus on objects at different distances

Nearsightedness

can see near, not far

Farsightedness

can see far, not near

Photoreceptors

specialized light sensitive neurons located in the retina

Rods

detect black, white, and gray; located in the corners of eyes; 120 million

cones

detect color; located in the center of eyes; 6 million

light adaptation

the process that allows cones in our eyes to adjust to brightness

dark adaptation

the process that allows rods in our eyes to adjust to darkness

Trichromatic theory

the retina contains three different color receptors (red, green, blue) which can produce the perception of any color

Ganglion cells

neurons in the retina that receive information from the bipolar cells