Factors affecting eyewitness testimonies (ETW) & how to improve EWTs (CI)
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1
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**Define eyewitness testimony**
Ability of people to remember details of events e.g crime, which they have witnessed. **Accuracy** can be **affected by** **misleading info, leading questions and anxiety.**
2
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**Explain misleading info (leading questions, Lotus & Palmer)**
**misleading info:** **Incorrect info** given to eyewitness usually after event.
**leading Qs:** a Q, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.
* **response-bias**: suggests wording of Q has **no effect on Ps memories**, just **influences** how they **decide** to answer.
* **substitution explanation:** wording of leading Q actually changes Ps memory.
\
**Lotus & Palmer 1974**: **45 students** watched film clips of car accidents, then were given Qs about accident - there was one critical leading question.
Ps asked **âhow fast were the cars going when they ___ each other?â.**
5 groups of Ps were given different verbs **: hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed**
* **Leading Q**, verb suggest speed of the car
* Mean estimated speed calculated for each group
**Results:**
* **Contacted = lowest (31.8mph)**
* **Smashed = highest (40.5mph)**
**Follow up exp:** Ps who received verb **âsmashesâ interviewed week later.**
* Found they were **more likely** to report seeing **broken glass** than those who heard **âhit**â, despite there being no glass in og clip
**leading Qs:** a Q, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.
* **response-bias**: suggests wording of Q has **no effect on Ps memories**, just **influences** how they **decide** to answer.
* **substitution explanation:** wording of leading Q actually changes Ps memory.
\
**Lotus & Palmer 1974**: **45 students** watched film clips of car accidents, then were given Qs about accident - there was one critical leading question.
Ps asked **âhow fast were the cars going when they ___ each other?â.**
5 groups of Ps were given different verbs **: hit, contacted, bumped, collided, smashed**
* **Leading Q**, verb suggest speed of the car
* Mean estimated speed calculated for each group
**Results:**
* **Contacted = lowest (31.8mph)**
* **Smashed = highest (40.5mph)**
**Follow up exp:** Ps who received verb **âsmashesâ interviewed week later.**
* Found they were **more likely** to report seeing **broken glass** than those who heard **âhit**â, despite there being no glass in og clip
3
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**Explain post-event discussion**
**PED: When witnesses of a crime discuss it with each other, may lead to their EWTâs being âcontaminated.**
**Gabbert et al 2003:** Paired Ps watched video of the same crime but from diff POVs.
* each P could see elements in event others could not.
* Both Ps then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
**Results: 71 %** Ps **mistakenly recalled aspects of event** that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the PED.
* Corresponding figure in **control group with no discussion, 0% (no errors).**
**conclusion:**
* **memory conformity**: witnesses go along with each other to win **social approval (NSI)** or cause they believe **other witnesses are right (ISI).**
**Gabbert et al 2003:** Paired Ps watched video of the same crime but from diff POVs.
* each P could see elements in event others could not.
* Both Ps then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
**Results: 71 %** Ps **mistakenly recalled aspects of event** that they did not see in the video, but had picked up in the PED.
* Corresponding figure in **control group with no discussion, 0% (no errors).**
**conclusion:**
* **memory conformity**: witnesses go along with each other to win **social approval (NSI)** or cause they believe **other witnesses are right (ISI).**
4
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**Evaluate misleading info: real-life application**
**Increased awareness of serious implications that misleading info can have**
* E.g police force now realised it is important to take extra care when interviewing eyewitness in order to ensure Qs do not lead them in anyway
* Because of research, **cognitive interview** (technique that requires special training to prevent leading Qs) have been developed.
**Strength,** research led to **+ive improvements in legal system.**
* E.g police force now realised it is important to take extra care when interviewing eyewitness in order to ensure Qs do not lead them in anyway
* Because of research, **cognitive interview** (technique that requires special training to prevent leading Qs) have been developed.
**Strength,** research led to **+ive improvements in legal system.**
5
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**Evaluate misleading info: lack of confounding variables**
**Research often conducted in controlled lab environ**
* E.g **lotus & palmer** allowed researchers to control age of Ps, whether they drove or not, incident they viewed etc (factors that may have affected results, therefore DV - estimated speed).
**Strength,** ensues these factors did not affect respondents answer, only verb causing Ps to re-evaluate their memories
* E.g **lotus & palmer** allowed researchers to control age of Ps, whether they drove or not, incident they viewed etc (factors that may have affected results, therefore DV - estimated speed).
**Strength,** ensues these factors did not affect respondents answer, only verb causing Ps to re-evaluate their memories
6
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**Evaluate misleading info: artificial tasks**
**Often use artificial tasks**
* E.g **lotus & palmer** Â asked Ps to watch film clips of car accidents, a very different experience to witnessing a real accident i.e less stressful
* **Yuille & Cutshall** found that witnesses of a real armed robbery had very accurate recall after 4 months.
**Weakness,** shows how using artificial tasks tell us little about how leading Qs affect EQT in real-life, therefore lack ecological validity.
* E.g **lotus & palmer** Â asked Ps to watch film clips of car accidents, a very different experience to witnessing a real accident i.e less stressful
* **Yuille & Cutshall** found that witnesses of a real armed robbery had very accurate recall after 4 months.
**Weakness,** shows how using artificial tasks tell us little about how leading Qs affect EQT in real-life, therefore lack ecological validity.
7
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**Evaluate misleading info: suffers fromdemand characteristics**
**lab studies of EWT suffer from DC.**
* **Ps usually want to be helpful, so when asked a question they donât know the answer to they will guess.**
* e.g may be asked âdid you see the blue car?â even if it wasnât blue they might reply âyesâ because it seems a more helpful answer.
\
**weakness, challenges validity of EWT research** as the answers given by Ps may not be reliable.
* **Ps usually want to be helpful, so when asked a question they donât know the answer to they will guess.**
* e.g may be asked âdid you see the blue car?â even if it wasnât blue they might reply âyesâ because it seems a more helpful answer.
\
**weakness, challenges validity of EWT research** as the answers given by Ps may not be reliable.
8
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**Define anxiety**
State of emotional & physical arousal.
* has strong emotional/physical effects
* unclear if these effects make recall better or worse.
* has strong emotional/physical effects
* unclear if these effects make recall better or worse.
9
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**Explain +ive effects of anxiety on recall**
Stress of witnessing a crime creates anxiety via physiological arousal: **(Flight or fight response)**.
* increases alertness, improves memory, because we are more aware of cues in situations.
**Yuille & Cutshall:** Interviewed eyewitness of **real shooting in a gun shop in Canada.**
* Shop owner shot a thief dead
* **21 witnesses** - **13 agreed** to take part
* Interviews held **4-5 months after inciden**t & compared to og police interviews made at time of shooting
* Accuracy determined by num of details reported
* Witness asked to **rate stress levels** at time of incident on 7-point scale/any emotional problems since event
**Findings:**
* Witnesses **very accurate** (some details were less accurate e.g age).
Ps with **highest level of stress were most accurate** (88% compared to 75%), suggesting **fight or flight response** created arousal, leading to better recall.
* increases alertness, improves memory, because we are more aware of cues in situations.
**Yuille & Cutshall:** Interviewed eyewitness of **real shooting in a gun shop in Canada.**
* Shop owner shot a thief dead
* **21 witnesses** - **13 agreed** to take part
* Interviews held **4-5 months after inciden**t & compared to og police interviews made at time of shooting
* Accuracy determined by num of details reported
* Witness asked to **rate stress levels** at time of incident on 7-point scale/any emotional problems since event
**Findings:**
* Witnesses **very accurate** (some details were less accurate e.g age).
Ps with **highest level of stress were most accurate** (88% compared to 75%), suggesting **fight or flight response** created arousal, leading to better recall.
10
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**Explain -ive effects of anxiety on recall**
Anxiety prevents us paying attention - recall is worse.
**Johnson & Scott 1976**: Ps sat in waiting rom, believing they were going to take part in lab study. each P heard an argument in next room.
**low anxiety condition:** man walked in carrying a pen with grease on hands.
**high anxiety condition:** heated argument accompanied by sound of breaking glass, man walked though holding paper knife covered in blood.
**Findings:** When asked to identify a man out of 50 picturesâŚ
* **49% low** anxiety condition, able to identify
* **33% high** anxiety condition
**tunnel theory :**Â suggests witnessâ attention narrows to focus on weapon (a source of anxiety/danger).
**Johnson & Scott 1976**: Ps sat in waiting rom, believing they were going to take part in lab study. each P heard an argument in next room.
**low anxiety condition:** man walked in carrying a pen with grease on hands.
**high anxiety condition:** heated argument accompanied by sound of breaking glass, man walked though holding paper knife covered in blood.
**Findings:** When asked to identify a man out of 50 picturesâŚ
* **49% low** anxiety condition, able to identify
* **33% high** anxiety condition
**tunnel theory :**Â suggests witnessâ attention narrows to focus on weapon (a source of anxiety/danger).
11
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**Explain contradictory findings of anxiety on recall**
**Yerkes & Dodson** suggested relationship between **emotional arousal & performance** looks like **âinverted Uâ**
* **Lower anxiety = lower recall accuracy**
* Memory more accurate as level of anxiety increases to optimal level of anxiety (max accuracy)
* If eyewitness experience m**ore stress than opt level, recall declines drastically**
* **Lower anxiety = lower recall accuracy**
* Memory more accurate as level of anxiety increases to optimal level of anxiety (max accuracy)
* If eyewitness experience m**ore stress than opt level, recall declines drastically**
12
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**Evaluate the effects of anxiety on accuracy of EWT: applications**
**real-life applications**
* E.g **enhanced cognitive interview**, police build rapport with eyewitness to reduce anxiety they are feeling during interview, leading to more accurate recall as they will be more relaxed, not anxious.
**Strength,** minimises effects of anxiety on EWT, therefore provide more accurate EW statements, reducing chance of wrongful conviction
* E.g **enhanced cognitive interview**, police build rapport with eyewitness to reduce anxiety they are feeling during interview, leading to more accurate recall as they will be more relaxed, not anxious.
**Strength,** minimises effects of anxiety on EWT, therefore provide more accurate EW statements, reducing chance of wrongful conviction
13
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**Evaluate the effects of anxiety on accuracy of EWT: lack of control on variables**
**field studies e.g Johnson & Scott: lack of control of variables.**
* real-life witnesses are interviewed sometime after event, many things happen in this period that researchers canât control.
* e.g **PED**, read/view accounts in the media, police interview may influence their memory.
**weakness,** these **EVs** are **difficult to isolate** and may be repsonsible for (in)accuracy of recall, not anxiety - **reducing internal validity** of the research.
* real-life witnesses are interviewed sometime after event, many things happen in this period that researchers canât control.
* e.g **PED**, read/view accounts in the media, police interview may influence their memory.
**weakness,** these **EVs** are **difficult to isolate** and may be repsonsible for (in)accuracy of recall, not anxiety - **reducing internal validity** of the research.
14
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**Evaluate the effects of anxiety on accuracy of EWT:Â ethical issues**
**there are to ethical issues in this research area.**
* E.g Ps in Johnson & Scottâs study witnessed a disturbing scene (may assume someone was stabbed)
* Suggests that studies may be breaking BPS guidelines, causes anxiety in Ps solely for research purposes, therefore they are not protected from psychological harm.
**Weakness,** because it raises issues to whether study should be carried out, makes more difficult to gain evidence for effect of anxiety on EWT.
* E.g Ps in Johnson & Scottâs study witnessed a disturbing scene (may assume someone was stabbed)
* Suggests that studies may be breaking BPS guidelines, causes anxiety in Ps solely for research purposes, therefore they are not protected from psychological harm.
**Weakness,** because it raises issues to whether study should be carried out, makes more difficult to gain evidence for effect of anxiety on EWT.
15
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**Evaluate the effects of anxiety on accuracy of EWT: demand characteristics**Â
**Uses artificial material as stimuli provokes demand characteristics.**
* most Ps in a controlled lab study are aware they are watching a filmed crime for a reason to do with study.
* they may work out that they are going to be asked questions about what they have seen, may give responses which they believe to be helpful to research, therefore displaying DC.
**Weakness,** casts doubts upon whether research is measuring the accuracy of EWT, reduces validity of research investigating effects of anxiety.
* most Ps in a controlled lab study are aware they are watching a filmed crime for a reason to do with study.
* they may work out that they are going to be asked questions about what they have seen, may give responses which they believe to be helpful to research, therefore displaying DC.
**Weakness,** casts doubts upon whether research is measuring the accuracy of EWT, reduces validity of research investigating effects of anxiety.
16
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**Explain the cognitive interview (fisher & geiselman)**
**CI**: questioning/interviewing technique used by police to enhance retrieval of information about a crime scene from eyewitness/victim.
* Memories made up of network of association: CI uses multiple retrieval strategies to access them.
**Report everything**
* include every detail, trivial details may be important, may trigger other memories.
\
**Reinstate the context**
* witness should return to OG crime scene & imagine environment/emotion.
* reinstatements acts as a cue to trigger memories (context-dependent forgetting).
\
**Reverse the order**
* events should be recalled in diff order to OG sequence
* prevents influence of expectations & schemes on recall, therefore they can report what actually happened
* prevents dishonesty (harder for people to produce untruthful account if they have to reverse it).
\
**Change perspective**
* recalling incident form other peopleâs perspectives
* E.g how it would have appeared to the perpetrator (prevents effect of expectations/schemas on recall)
* prevents influence of expectations & schemes on recall,
* Memories made up of network of association: CI uses multiple retrieval strategies to access them.
**Report everything**
* include every detail, trivial details may be important, may trigger other memories.
\
**Reinstate the context**
* witness should return to OG crime scene & imagine environment/emotion.
* reinstatements acts as a cue to trigger memories (context-dependent forgetting).
\
**Reverse the order**
* events should be recalled in diff order to OG sequence
* prevents influence of expectations & schemes on recall, therefore they can report what actually happened
* prevents dishonesty (harder for people to produce untruthful account if they have to reverse it).
\
**Change perspective**
* recalling incident form other peopleâs perspectives
* E.g how it would have appeared to the perpetrator (prevents effect of expectations/schemas on recall)
* prevents influence of expectations & schemes on recall,
17
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**Explain the enhanced Cognitive interview (ECI)**
**Fisher et al** developed additional elements of CI to focus on **social dynamics** of interaction
* e.g reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting witnesses to speak slowly, asking open-ended questions.
* e.g reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting witnesses to speak slowly, asking open-ended questions.
18
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**Evaluate cognitive interview: research support**
**Shown to produce better recall than standard police interviews**
* **E.g geiselman et al**: after watching film of violent crime after 2 says, av recall of correctly recalled facts was
* **41% CI, 29% standard police review**
* Suggests CI should be used more commonly, opposed to standard police interview as they produce better recall.
**Strength,** CI = better recall of events, with witnesses being able to recall more relevant info (effective).
* **E.g geiselman et al**: after watching film of violent crime after 2 says, av recall of correctly recalled facts was
* **41% CI, 29% standard police review**
* Suggests CI should be used more commonly, opposed to standard police interview as they produce better recall.
**Strength,** CI = better recall of events, with witnesses being able to recall more relevant info (effective).
19
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**Evaluate cognitive interview: support for effectiveness of EC**
**There is evidence to support its usefulness**
* **E.g Kohnken conducted meta-analysis of 50 studies, found ECI consistently provided more correct info than standard police interviews**
**Strength,** indicates there are real practical benefits to the police using ECI as it improves EWT accuracy.
* **E.g Kohnken conducted meta-analysis of 50 studies, found ECI consistently provided more correct info than standard police interviews**
**Strength,** indicates there are real practical benefits to the police using ECI as it improves EWT accuracy.
20
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**Evaluate cognitive interview: time consuming**Â
**Time-consuming to conduct**
* Police reluctant to use CI, takes much more time than standard police interview (need to establish rapport + more techniques), may be unwilling to undergo training.
**Weakness,** unlikely âproperâ version of CI is actually used, therefore EWT will not be improved.
* Police reluctant to use CI, takes much more time than standard police interview (need to establish rapport + more techniques), may be unwilling to undergo training.
**Weakness,** unlikely âproperâ version of CI is actually used, therefore EWT will not be improved.
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**Evaluate cognitive interview: individual differences**
**Canât be used on vulnerable people**
* E.g very young children may not be able
to âreverse the orderâ, too complex
* Elderly peopleâs memories may be impaired, techniques may confuse them further
* Suggests individual difference between people may actually cause worst/inaccurate EWTâs
**Weakness,** CI canât be used on everyone
* E.g very young children may not be able
to âreverse the orderâ, too complex
* Elderly peopleâs memories may be impaired, techniques may confuse them further
* Suggests individual difference between people may actually cause worst/inaccurate EWTâs
**Weakness,** CI canât be used on everyone