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Italian Renaissance

A cultural movement originating in Italy, characterized, marked by the revival of Greco-Roman texts, humanist ideals, and a focus on artistic innovation, individual achievement, and secular learning.

Fall of Constantinople

When the city fell to the Ottoman Turks, Greek scholars fled to the West and brought with them classical texts and knowledge, igniting a cultural rebirth and a focus on individual achievement.

Humanism

An intellectual movement focusing on human potential and achievements, emphasizing the study of classical (Greco-Roman) texts. emphasizing the study of classical antiquity (Greek and Roman works), grammar, rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy.

Individualism

Emphasizes the value of the individual, self-expression and personal achievement, reflected in the increased focus on personal creativity and the exploration of new ideas during the Renaissance.

Secularism

An increased interest in art, science, and literature as people moved away from religious ideas. This is often seen in education, science, art and literature

Northern Renaissance

As Renaissance ideas moved north, they became more religious, setting the stage for the Protestant Reformation. Merged Christian values with classical ideas Christian Humanism.

Christian Humanism

a movement that developed in northern Europe during the renaissance combining classical learning with the goal of reforming the Catholic Church (northern)

Protestant Reformation

A religious movement that aimed to reform the Roman Catholic Church, initiated by Martin Luther's 95 Theses in 1517, emphasizing salvation through faith alone (Sola Fide) and the authority of Scripture (Sola Scriptura).

John Hus

Advocated for church reform, highlighted corruption in the church and pushed for sole authority in scripture. Executed for heresy and became a symbol of resistance and inspiration for later reformers

Ciompi Revolt

An uprising that occurred in Florence by the lowest class of workers driven by social unrest due to economic disparity, political exclusion, and oppressive labor conditions.

Medici Family

A prominent banking family in Florence, known for their significant power. Huge patrons of Renaissance art. Used wealth and influence to control politics and promote humanist learning.

Papal States

Territories in central Italy governed by the Pope as both religious and political leader.

Civic Humanism

Inspired by ancient Roman and Greek citizenship ideals, it emphasizes individual participation in public affairs and civic life, promoting knowledge and artistic pursuit for the common good.Thinkers like Leonardo Bruni were key figures who saw service to the state as a noble endeavor.

Petrarch

Known as the 'Father of Humanism,' he emphasized the study of classical texts and the value of human experience.

Printing Press

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg, it allowed for the mass production of books, facilitating the spread of ideas during the Renaissance, scientific revolution, and Protestant Reformation.

Machiavelli

An Italian political theorist who wrote 'The Prince,' advocating for pragmatic and sometimes ruthless political leadership, stating that the ends justify the means.

Age of Exploration

A period during which European powers explored and colonized parts of the world, driven by motives of wealth, religious spread, and national prestige.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and cultures between the Americas and the Old World following the voyages of Christopher Columbus.

Mercantilism

An economic theory emphasizing the accumulation of wealth through a favorable balance of trade and colonial expansion.

Martin Luther

A German monk who started the Protestant Reformation by posting his 95 Theses in 1517, challenging the Catholic Church's immoral practices and doctrines.

95 Theses

A list of grievances that criticized the Roman Catholic Church's practices and immorality, especially the sale of indulgences. This fractured the Catholic Church and laid the foundation for Protestant denominations like Lutheranism. (Nailed to the wall)

Sale of Indulgences

Indulgences were basically a get out of hell free pass that Pope Leo and Johann Tetzel sold. They became commercialized, turning into a corrupt practice that outraged reformers like Luther.

Justification by Faith

Individuals are saved through faith alone. (Sola Fide)

Justification by Scripture

Scripture should be the sole source of authority (Sola Scriptura).

Peace of Augsburg

An agreement within the HRE allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism as the official religion of their territories.

John Calvin

A French theologian who developed Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and a strict sense of morality. Calvin's strict moral code and theocratic ideas spread through parts of Switzerland, France, and the Netherlands, shaping Protestant thought deeply.

Predestination

The idea that people are already chosen to go to heaven.

Henry VIII

The King of England who had six wifes and wanted to have a male heir. When the pope refused to annul his marriage, Henry passed the Act of Supremacy, making himself head of the Church of England (Anglican Church). This established state control over religion and led to major changes in English governance and identity.

Council of Trent

Catholic Church's response to the Reformation. It reaffirmed core Catholic doctrines like transubstantiation and the seven sacraments, but also reformed clerical abuses and improved training for priests. It marked the beginning of the Catholic (Counter) Reformation, a major revitalization of the Church.

Catholic Counter-Reformation

An internal reform of the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century; thanks especially to the work of the Council of Trent, Catholic leaders clarified doctrine, corrected abuses and corruption, and put a new emphasis on education and accountability.

Thirty Years' War

began as a conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire but escalated into a broader political struggle involving most European powers. ended with the Peace of Westphalia, which would shift wars from religious to political. FOUR PHASES BOHEMIAN DANISH SWEDISH FRENCH

Bohemian Phase

The conflict began when Protestant nobles in Bohemia rebelled against the Catholic Habsburg emperor after the Defenestration of Prague. The rebellion was crushed at the Battle of White Mountain, resulting in Catholic dominance in Bohemia.

Battle of Whitemountain

Catholics defeated the Protestants

Defenestration of Prague

The throwing of Catholic officials from a castle window in Bohemia. Started the Thirty Years' War.

Danish Phase

King Christian IV of Denmark, a Protestant, entered the war to support fellow Protestants and expand his influence, but was defeated by the Catholic forces led by Wallenstein and Tilly. The phase ended with the Edict of Restitution, which tried to restore Catholic lands, escalating tensions.

Swedish Phase

Sweden, led by King Gustavus Adolphus, entered the war to support Protestants and curb Habsburg power, winning key battles like Breitenfeld. However, after Gustavus Adolphus died in battle, the momentum slowed and the war became more political.

French Phase

Catholic France allied with Protestant Sweden to weaken the Habsburgs, shifting the war from a religious to a political conflict. It became a brutal, continent-wide struggle that ended with the Peace of Westphalia, establishing state sovereignty and ending large-scale religious wars in Europe.

Peace of Westphalia

A series of treaties that ended the Thirty Years' War, recognizing the sovereignty of states and establishing a new political order in Europe.

Edict of Nantes

A decree issued by King Henry IV of France granting religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants). It ended the brutal French Wars of Religion and exemplified politique leadership placing stability and unity above personal religious beliefs.

Huguenots

French Protestants

John Knox

Who spread Protestantism to Scotland?

Presbyterians

What was Protestantism in Scotland called?

Diet of Worms

Meeting where Martin Luther was summoned by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to recant his teachings, Luther refused and was declared an outlaw.

Schmalkaldic War

was fought between Charles V and the Protestant princes of the Schmalkaldic League. Although Charles initially won, the continuing resistance forced compromise, leading to the Peace of Augsburg. This war demonstrated the growing power of Protestant political forces.

The Schmalkaldic Wars led to the formation of the peace of ….?

The Peace of Ausburg

Sacraments

Sacred rites recognized by the Church as outward signs of inward grace; Catholics accept seven, while Protestants often accept only two (baptism and communion).

Transubstantiation

Catholic belief that during Mass, the bread and wine become the actual body and blood of Christ.

Zwingli

Swiss reformer who rejected many Catholic practices and disagreed with Luther on the Eucharist, viewing it as symbolic rather than literal. (Memorial)

Consubstantiation

Lutheran belief that Christ is spiritually present in the bread and wine during communion, but they do not change substance.

Jesuits

disciplined Catholic order devoted to education, missionary work, and defending the faith during the Counter-Reformation. Their emphasis on obedience, scholarship, and global missions made them a powerful force in revitalizing Catholicism. GOD SQUAD

Ursuline Nuns

Catholic order of nuns founded by Angela Merici; dedicated to the education of girls and care of the sick and poor during the Catholic Reformation.

German Peasants' Revolt

Inspired by reformation ideas, peasants demanded economic and social reforms, Luther denounced them, siding with the nobles. He feared chaos and needed noble support to protect the Reformation.

Why did Luther side with the nobility?

He needed their funding and support for the revolution

Spanish Armada

Massive fleet sent by Philip II in 1588 to invade Protestant England, defeated by English navy and storms, marking the decline of Spanish naval dominance.

Politiques

Rulers who put political necessities above personal beliefs, such as Henry IV of France and Elizabeth I of England.

Anabaptists

A Protestant sect that believed in adult baptism and separation of church and state.

Adult Baptism

Before this point, children were usually baptized at a young age because of high child mortality rates and low life expectancy. Their idea was, a child should be baptized as early as possible to ensure entry into heaven. With life expectancy going up, people started to think that people should make a decision for themselves as adults.

Act of Supremacy

gave full power to the king (specifically over the church) which made Henry VIII the Head of the Anglican Church. Henry wanted to divorce his wife but the poor wouldn't let him (womp womp)

Prince Henry the Navigator

was known as prince Henry the navigator because of his sponsorship of early voyages of exploration which helped launch the Age of Exploration by promoting navigation and maritime studies.

Bartholomew Dias

Portuguese explorer who was the first European to round the Cape of Good Hope (1488), opening the sea route to Asia that allowed Portuguese trade to bypass Muslim-controlled land routes.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador who conquered the Inca Empire in Peru, claiming vast riches for Spain.

Spanish Inquisition

Religious court established by Ferdinand and Isabella to enforce Catholic orthodoxy, targeting converted Jews, Muslims, and later Protestants.

War of the Three Henries

Final phase of the French Wars of Religion between Henry III (king), Henry of Guise (Catholic League), and Henry of Navarre (Protestant), which ended with Navarre becoming King Henry IV.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

massacre of thousands of Huguenots in Paris by Catholics, sparking a new wave of religious wars in France.

Great Schism

Period when multiple popes claimed authority, dividing the Catholic Church and weakening its prestige.

Time of Troubles

Period of Russian instability after the death of Ivan the Terrible, marked by famine, civil war, and foreign invasion. . It ended with the rise of the Romanov dynasty.

House of Commons

Lower house of British Parliament; represented commoners and gained power over time.

House of Lords

Upper house of British Parliament; made up of nobility and clergy.

Petition of Right (1628)

Document limiting the king's power, asserting that taxes must be approved by Parliament.

Test Act (1673)

Law requiring public officials in England to be Anglican, excluding Catholics from government. They had to receive Anglican communion, reinforcing Protestant dominance.

The Bill of Rights (1689)

Document signed by William & Mary during the Glorious Revolution; limited monarch power and affirmed parliamentary sovereignty.

Who was known as "Lord Protector"?

Oliver Cromwell, who ruled England after the execution of Charles I during the Commonwealth period.

Junkers

Prussian landowning nobles who supported the monarchy in exchange for control over the serfs and dominance in the military. They formed the backbone of Prussian militarism.

War of Austrian Succession

Conflict over Maria Theresa's right to rule cuz she a woman, involved most European powers. Though she retained the throne, tensions remained unresolved, leading to further conflict.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle

Ended War of Austrian Succession, restored pre-war borders but unresolved tensions led to future conflict.

Great Northern War

War in which Russia defeated Sweden under Peter the Great, gaining access to the Baltic Sea. This victory marked Russia's rise as a European power.

Austro-Prussian War

Prussia defeated Austria to exclude it from German unification.

Franco-Prussian War

War in which Prussia defeated France, leading to German unification under Bismarck and the fall of Napoleon III.

Who said "dare to know"?

Immanuel Kant.

Baroque Art

An artistic style characterized by dramatic expression, grandeur, and movement, often used to convey religious themes.

Chiarusco

use of dark and light in paintings.

Frescos

paintings done directly on the wall.

Galileo Galilei

An Italian astronomer who supported heliocentrism and was tried by the Inquisition for his views.

Nicolaus Copernicus

A Renaissance astronomer who proposed a heliocentric model of the universe.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to research and experimentation developed during the Scientific Revolution.

William Harvey

An English physician who discovered the circulation of blood in the human body.

Francis Bacon

An English philosopher who promoted empirical methods and inductive reasoning.

Absolutism

A form of government where the monarch holds absolute power, unbound by laws or opposition.

Louis XIV

Known as the "Sun King," he epitomized absolute monarchy and centralized power in France. Domesticated nobles

Domestication of the Nobility

Leaders controlled nobility so they couldn't take over, King Louis XIV did this by making nobles live at Versailles. This kept them distracted with court life and dependent on the king, weakening their regional influence and consolidating royal authority.

Great Exhibition/Crystal Palace

Was a industrial fair in England to show off many modern inventions and goods of Industry. The Crystal palace was a large palace built entirely of iron and glass.

Intendants were

Royal officials sent out by the French crown to enforce royal orders and undermine the power of local nobility. They were basically extensions of the monarchy

Thermidorian Reaction

The moderate phase following the fall of Robespierre in the French Revolution, signaling a retreat from radicalism.

Carlsbad Decrees

Repressive laws in the German states limiting freedom of speech and dissemination of liberal ideas in the universities. These were meant to suppress liberal and nationalist movements.

Kulturkampf

Bismarck's anticlerical campaign to expel Jesuits from Germany and break off relations with Vatican. Eventually, after little success, Bismarck halted these policies.

Syllabus of Errors

document by Pope Pius IX condemning liberalism, nationalism, and secular modernity. He rejected any ideas that challenged the church such as liberalism, capitalism, communism, scientific revolutions, and anything that challenged the church

Revisionist Socialism

A form of socialism that has revised its critique of capitalism and seeks to reconcile greater social justice with surviving capitalist forms.

Pragmatic Sanction

This was the act passed by Charles VI that stated that Hapsburg possessions were never to be divided, in order to allow his daughter to be ruler

Triennial Act

Act reluctantly agreed to by Charles I (who said it reduced his sovereign powers) which stated that there had to be a parliament meeting every three years.

Levellers & Diggers

Radical groups during the English Civil War, Levellers demanded political equality, while Diggers pushed for communal land ownership.