Uni 0 IDA 2

Qualitative measures

Data collected in non-numerical form (e.g., descriptions, interview responses, observations) focusing on qualities or characteristics.

Structured interviews

Data collection method using a fixed, predetermined set of standardized questions asked in the same order to every participant.

Quantitative measures

Data collected in numerical form that can be counted, measured, or statistically analyzed.

Likert scales

Rating scales used in surveys (e.g., 1 to 5 from "Strongly Disagree" to "Strongly Agree") to measure attitudes, opinions, or perceptions.

Appropriate representation

Ensuring a sample accurately reflects the demographics and characteristics of the broader target population.

Replication and peer review

Repeating a study to see if findings hold true, combined with the evaluation of research by experts in the field before publication.

Case study

An in-depth, detailed examination of a single individual, group, or event.

Naturalistic observation

Observing and recording subjects' behavior in their natural environment without intervention or manipulation.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines and analyzes results from multiple independent studies on the same topic to identify overall trends.

Correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables; observing that two variables move together does not imply that one causes the other.

Variables of interest

The specific factors or traits that a researcher chooses to observe or measure in a study.

Directionality problem

A limitation of correlational research where it is unclear whether variable $A$ causes variable $B$, or if variable $B$ causes variable $A$.

Third-variable problem

Occurs when an unmeasured third factor (confounding variable) causes the observed relationship between two variables.

Surveys

A data collection method using questionnaires or interviews to gather self-reported data from a group of people.

Wording effects

How subtle changes in the phrasing or order of survey questions can influence participants' responses.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

An ethics committee that reviews research proposals to protect the rights, safety, and welfare of participants.

Informed consent

The process of informing adult participants about a study's purpose, risks, and procedures so they can voluntarily agree to participate.

Informed assent

Agreement obtained from minors or individuals unable to give legal consent, alongside parental or guardian permission.

Protection from harm

The ethical requirement that researchers must protect participants from physical, psychological, or emotional distress.

Confidentiality

Ensuring that participants' personal identifying information is kept private and not shared publicly.

Anonymity

Ensuring that participants' identities cannot be linked to their data, even by the researcher.

Deception and correction

Misleading participants about study goals when necessary for valid results, followed by revealing the truth during debriefing.

Confederate

An actor working for the researcher who pretends to be a genuine participant or bystander during an experiment.

Debriefing

A conversation after a study where researchers explain the true purpose, clear up misconceptions, and ensure the participant leaves unharmed.

Tables, graphs, charts, and figures

Visual tools used to organize, present, and summarize data clearly.

Central tendency

Summary metrics that represent the middle or typical center value of a dataset.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a dataset, calculated by dividing the sum of all scores by the total number of scores.

Median

The exact middle score in a dataset when numbers are ordered from lowest to highest.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

Range

The difference between the highest score and the lowest score in a dataset.

Standard deviation

A measure of how much individual scores vary or spread out around the mean score.

Normal curve percentages

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where scores fall predictably: roughly $68\%$ within 1 standard deviation, $95\%$ within 2, and $99.7\%$ within 3.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a specific score.

Skewness

The degree to which a data distribution is asymmetrical, where a tail extending to the right indicates a positive skew and a tail extending to the left indicates a negative skew.

Bimodal distribution

A frequency distribution that has two distinct peaks.

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores on a first measurement to move closer to the average score upon retesting.