Intro to Modern Bio 1: Chapter 3 Re (Biological Molecules)

A Molecule consisting of carbo linked to only hydrogen atoms are called?

Hydrocarbons

The simplest hydrocarbon, CH4 consists of a single carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms

Functional groups are small reactive groups of atoms which give what? With the most frequent and essential being?

• Larger molecules specific chemical properties

• Hydroxly, Carbonyl, Carboxyl, Amino, Phosphate, and Sulfhydryl groups

What makes a Hydroxyl-Alcohol?

It contains an -OH

What makes a Carbonyl-Aldehydes-Ketones

It contains a C double bonded to an O

What makes a Carboxyl-Carboxylic acids

A C double bonded to an O, and bonded to an -OH

What makes a Amino-Amines

An N bonded to two H’s

What makes a Phosphate- Organic Phosphates

A Phosphorus (P), linked to 4 O’s, with one being Double Bonded

For a Phosphate group, it has the ability to bridge two organic building blocks to form a large structure, for example?

DNA

What makes a Sulfhydryl- Thiols

A Sulfur (S) linked to an H

In many linking reactions, when two sulfhydryl groups come together it forms a?

Disulfide linkage

What Chemical is this?

Aspartame

What are Isomers?

Molecules with the same molecular or empirical formula but different molecular structures

Structural Isomers are the same chemical formula but?

The arrangement of atoms are different

Stereoisomers are molecules that differ in how?

Groups attached

Look at these Stereoisomers, what makes L and D different?

-If an Isomer polarizes light to the right it is a D Isomer (dextrorotatory)
-If an Isomer polarizes light to the left it is a L isomer (levorotatory)

Which Molecule is this?

Glucose (An aldehyde)

Which Molecule is this?

Fructose (a ketone)

Which Molecule is this?

Galactose

Which Ring Form is this?

Galactose

Which Ring Form is this?

Glucose Alpha

Which Ring Form is this?

Glucose Beta

Which Ring Form is this?

Fructose

Image of Glucose, with a Structural Isomer and Stereo-Isomer

Glucose & Galactose, both have the same C double Bond with O, but have an OH and H on opposite directions.
Glucose and Fructose both have the same OH and H, but a different location for the C double bond with O

What is the Polymer

Built by linking monomers

What is the Monomer

Small, similar chemical subunits

What is Dehydration Synthesis?

Formation of large molecules by the removal of water
(Monomers are joined to form polymers)
Will get rid of an H2O for each molecule

What is Hydrolysis?

Breakdown of Large molecules by adding water
(Polymers are broken down to monomers)

The next few slides go over Carbohydrates molecules with a 1:2:1 ratio of carbo, hydrogen, oxygen

Monosaccharides contain about?

Three to seven carbon atoms

Two monosaccharides will polymerize to form a?

Disaccharide

A polysaccharides oocur when?

Carbohydrate polymers made of more than 10 linked monosaccharide monomers

The Monosaccharide is the simplest carbohydrate with examples of common hexoses being?

• Glucose (C6H12O6)

• Fructose

• Galactose

(All monosaccharides occur in linear form)

Which molecule is this?

Glyceraldehyde

Which molecule is this?

Ribose

Which molecule is this?

Mannose

Monosaccharides with five or more carbons have the ability to do what?

Fold back on themselves through a reaction between two functional groups to form a ring form

Glucose can exist as two enantiomers being?

alpha-glucose, and beta glucose
The main difference being the the OH for alpha will be below the plane, and the beta being above

Which is which?

Alpha is on the Left, Beta is on the Right

Disaccharides are assembled from?, and joined by what reaction?

Two monosaccharides covalently joined by a dehydration synthesis reaction

What is a Glycosidic Bond?

A type of covalent chemical bond that connects a carbohydrate molecule/group with another carbohydrate molecule/group
(Monosaccharide with another Monosaccharide)

What do we see from this Maltose Image?

Maltose is formed by the glycosidic bond linking of two Alpha Glucose Molecules, with the bridge occurring between the 1 carbon of the first glucose and the 4 carbon of the second glucose
a(1→4) linkage

Sucrose is made from the? (what’s the linkage as well)

Linkage of the Alpha-Glucose and Fructose
a(1→2) linkage

Lactose is made from the? (what’s the linkage as well)

Linkage of Glucose and the Beta Galactose Unit
B(1→4) linkage

Polysaccharides is a long chain of monosaccharides with what main characteristics?

• Linked through dehydration synthesis

• Polysaccharides may be linear, unbranched molecules, or they may contain one or more branches in which side chains of sugar units are attached to a main chain

Plants and Animals will use Polysaccharides as an energy storage, with those molecules being?

Plants use Starch
Animals use glycogen

Polysaccharides may also be used as structural support, for Plants they will use?, while Arthropods and fungi use?

Plants use Cellulose

Arthropods and Fungi use Chitin

For Amylose, what is the main monomer, linkage type, and is it branched or linear?

Amylose is formed from Alpha Glucose Monomer, with linkage type Alpha (1→4), and is formed in a linear way

For Glycogen, what is the main monomer, linkage type, and is it branched or linear?

Glycogen is formed from Alpha Glucose Monomer, with linkage type Alpha (1→4) for main chain, and Alpha (1→6) for branched

For Cellulose, what is the main monomer, linkage type, and is it branched or linear?

Cellulose is formed from Beta Glucose Monomer, with linkage type Beta (1→4), and is formed in a linear way

CHITIN, a reinforcing fiber in the external skeleton of arthropods and cell walls of some fungi

More of a fun fact

For CHITIN, what is the main monomer, linkage type, and is it branched or linear?

The main Monomer is Glucose, but it contains Amino Functional Groups attached to it, making it N‑acetylglucosamine. The Linkage type is Beta (1→4), and is Linear

Which Polysaccharide is this?

Glycogen

Which Polysaccharide is this?

CHITIN

Which Polysaccharide is this?

Cellulose

Which Polysaccharide is this?

Amylose

Lipids are water-insoluble, primarily nonpolar biological molecules composed mostly of hydrocarbons.
What are three common types of lipid molecules?:

• Neutral lipids are stored and used as energy

• Phospholipids form cell membranes

• Steroids serve as hormones that regulate cellular activites

Neutral Lipids, are found in cells as?

Energy-storage molecules, having no charged groups (nonpolar)

What are the two types of neutral lipids?

• Oils are liquid

• Fats are semisolid

A fatty acid contains a?

Single hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group (-COOH) at one end

A Triglyceride is formed by

Dehydration synthesis between three-carbon glycerol (an alcohol) and three fatty acid side chains

Triglycerides have many functions, what are the main 3 to note?

• Serve as energy reserves in animals

• Layer of fatty tissue just under the skin (acts as insulation)

• Makes bird feathers waterproof

The most common fatty acid will have chains of?

14 to 22 carbons
(As chain length increase, fatty acid become less soluble and more oily)

A saturated fatty acid binds the?

Maximum number of Hydrogen Atoms
-Only single bonds exist between carbon atoms

Fatty acids with one double bond are called?, while those with more than one are called?

One double bond=Monosaturated, More than one double bond=Polyunsaturated

What is the bond between the -COOH group of fatty acid and the -OH group of glycerol?

A covalent bond called ester linkage

What do we see from this image?

The Left Diagram representing a Saturated Fat, and the Right representing a Unsaturated Fat

How does the Unsaturated Structure Differ from Saturated?

While the Saturated is Straight, the Unsaturated is Bent. While all of the C are single bonds in Saturated, the C in unsaturated are sometimes double bonded with eachother

Trans fats are very unhealthy fats that can cause things like?

Atherosclerosis from buildup of plaque in coronary arteries, formed by buildup of excess cholesterol

Phospholipids are formed by?

• Glycerol

• 2 fatty acids -nonpolar tails

• A phosphate group- polar head

What are the four types of Phospholipids?

• Phosphatidyl Serine

• Phosphatidyl Ethanolamine

• Phosphatidyl Choline

• Phosphatidyl Inositol

Phospholipids structure diagram

In Water environments, only what are exposed to water?

The Polar Ends of the Phospholipid molecules are exposed to water

Where does the nonpolar ends go to?

They collect together in a region excluded from water

The Phospholipid Bilayer is a film of?

Phospholipids two molecules thick

• Contains a polar group facing the water molecules at the surface of the bilayer

• The Hydrocarbon chains form a nonpolar, hydrophobic region in the interior

Micelles are when?

Lipid molecules orient with polar (hydrophilic) head toward water, and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails away from water

How do Waxes form?

Fatty acids combine with long-chain alcohols or hydrocarbon

How does Wax help Plants and Animals

Waxy coatings help animals keep skin, hair, or feathers protected and lubricated
They help plants secrete a waxy protective exterior layer to reduce water loss and resists infective agents

Steroids are lipids with structures based on a framework of?

Four carbon rings

Come back to 42-45

Nucleic Acids are Polymers, in which they have what Monomer, and are connected/linked by what bond?

Monomer is Nucleotides

Bonded by phosphodiester

What are two Nucleic Acids?

DNA and RNA

How does a Nucleotide and Nucleosides differ?

Nucleotides are made of a Sugar, Phosphate, and a Nitrogenous Base

Nucleosides are made of a Sugar, and Nitrogenous Base

So…Nucleosides differ because?

They don’t contain a Phosphate

Sugar is what in DNA and RNA?

Deoxyribose in DNA

Ribose in RNA

Nitrogenous Bases include?

• Purines: adenine and guanine

• Pyrimidines: thymine, cytosine, uracil

Overall structural plan of a nucleotide

What makes a Pyrimidines?

• A Nitrogenous base with one carbon-nitrogen ring

• Uracil, Thymine, Cytosine

What makes a Purines?

• A Nitrogenous base with two carbon-nitrogen rings

• Adenine and Guanine

Diagram of the Nitrogenous Bases of Uracil, Thymine, Cytosine, Adenine, and Guanine

How do you differentiate between a Deoxyribose and a ribose nucleotide if they have the same (Phosphate, Glucose, and Nitrogenous Base)

In the 2’ spot of the Sugar, their will be an OH in RNA and a H in DNA

DNA will encode information for?

Amino acid sequence of proteins

A DNA strand is a Double Helix, which is what?

2 polynucleotide strands connected by hydrogen bonds

What are the Base-Paring Rules for the hydrogen bonds?

A with T, or A with U in RNA
C with G always

DNA and RNA will consist of polynucleotide chains, with one nucleotide linked to the next by?

Phosphodiester bond
Phosphate of one bond connects with the 3’ of one, and the 5’ of the other

DNA Base Pairs

Concept	What you should know
Base pairs	A–T (2 H‑bonds), C–G (3 H‑bonds)
Base types	Purines: A, G; Pyrimidines: T, C
Bond type	Hydrogen bonds between bases
Attachment	Bases connect to deoxyribose sugar
Purpose	Complementary pairing → double helix stability

RNA molecules exist mainly as single polynucleotide chains (singlestranded) – however, RNA molecules can?

Fold back on themselves to form double-helical regions

In RNA, the uracil (U) base takes the place of thymine (T), forming?

A–U base pairs

“Hybrid” double helices (an RNA chain paired with a DNA chain) are formed temporarily when

RNA copies DNA

What are some other examples of Nucleotides?

• ATP adenosine triphosphate – Primary energy currency of the cell

• NAD+ and FAD+ – Electron carriers for many cellular reactions